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Title: The Grocer's Encyclopedia...(Alternate title on front cover and half title page: Encyclopedia of Foods and Beverages)
Author: Ward, Artemas
Publisher: New York

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> THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA

> FOR GROCERS AND GENERAL STOREKEEPERS

This Encyclopedia covers all articles ordinarily handled by Fancy and General Grocers, and, in addition, a wide range of information on other subjects more or less closely allied to their trade, or to that of the General Storekeeper. The text has been made as concise as possible, while retaining the most interesting points on the cultivation, manufacturing, marketing, etc., of the principal staples. As it is designed chiefly for trade and public reference, purely technical terms--chemical, botanical, etc.--have been avoided, except where they are needed to evade the confusion which would result from the employment of contradictory popular titles or terms.

The APPENDIX, commencing on page 710, contains a dictionary of all common food names, in five languages, an explanatory list of the principal French Culinary and Bill-of-Fare words and phrases in general use, and Tables of Weights and Measures.

ABALONE: an immense uni-valve shellfish common on the Pacific Coast. It somewhat resembles the eastern scallop but has only one shell. Its flesh, which corresponds in general character to that of the oyster, was formerly eaten only by Chinese and Japanese fishermen, but white residents of the Coast States are beginning to appreciate and relish it. It is sold fresh, dried and canned; in the two latter cases cut into pieces of suitable size. The pearly shell is beautiful when polished and is much used in the manufacture of souvenirs, ornaments, etc. In Japan, the abalone product is an important item in the fisheries industry.

[Illustration: An illustration of two oblong shellfish.]

ABATTIOR (from the French Abattre, "to knock down"): a public slaughter-house. The most notable American abattoirs are those in Chicago, Kansas City, So. Omaha and New York. In the larger establishments, cattle are killed, skinned, cut up and hung in the cooling room in thirty-nine minutes--each carcass being in that short time handled by twenty men. Hogs are killed at the rate of 550 an hour, each being handled by twenty-five men in thirty-two minutes. Sheep are killed at the rate of 620 an hour, the slaughtering and dressing occupying about thirty-four minutes.

[Illustration: Several men bend over large boxes full of shellfish, which are laid out on a shore with some low mountains in the background.]

The wholesale Slaughtering and Meat Packing industries of the country


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[Illustration: An illustration of a large stockyard surrounded by fences and buildings. Several men on horses are riding around the periphery of the stockyard.]

employ a capital of more than $250,000,000 and about 75,000 persons. The value of the output is in the neighborhood of a billion dollars, of which approximately 85% is in the form of edible products--fresh, cured and canned meats, lard, etc.--and 15% in various industrial items.

ABSINTHE: a liquor extensively drunk on the Continent, especially in France and Switzerland, and now largely exported to the United States. That of good quality consists of about 50% alcohol, distilled with absinthium or wormwood and other herbs, such as balm, fennel, anise and hyssop, or their essential oils. To prepare it for drinking, the liquor is mixed with water, added drop by drop and permitted to fall from some height.

Absinthe drunkenness, or even continuous tippling, produces utter derangement of the digestive system, ending in paralysis.

The herb Absinthium is employed medicinally for its tonic properties.

ACARUS, or Mite: a species of insects including many varieties, among which the Cheese Mite, the Flour Mite and the Sugar Mite are common to the trade. The Cheese Mite is one of the most minute of these pests (see article on CHEESE). The Flour Mite is covered with long hairs, and is capable of a good deal of motion. The Sugar Mite is found in great quantities in all "raw" or soft sugars, but refined sugar is free from it. Brokers handling samples of raw sugar are often troubled by acari, as they bury themselves under the skin and cause an irritation similar to the itch. The surface of jelly and preserves that have been kept overlong is frequently covered with mites, and there is also a variety which lives on vegetables and makes itself especially obnoxious in the Spring.

[Illustration: An illustration of a tall flowering plant with compound leaves.]

ACCOUNTS. Family accounts are generally kept by grocers in pass-books. Care taken before accounts are opened, and while they are running, will often aid materially in their settlement. In factory districts, it is not unusual to obtain written agreements that they shall be settled regularly on pay-days. Persons desiring to open accounts are sometimes willing to give security to a small amount, or to name references. The latter offer should always be accepted, as many who would otherwise not mind defrauding the grocer will pay rather than have the case reported to those whom they gave as references. To add each account up every month or oftener and present a bill, is very important. To write plainly in the pass-book avoids misunderstandings. A


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duplicate should invariably be kept in the store.

[Illustration: An illustration of a stockyard divided into four different pens, three of which are filled with cattle.]

In suit for an account, the grocer should be prepared to furnish a fully itemized bill. If a short note can first be obtained it makes the suit simpler even if it is not paid, as it generally precludes all question as to the items of the bill.

ACETIC ACID: which is sometimes employed by confectioners in sugar boiling, to stiffen cake icing, etc., and, in dilute form, is the principal characteristic of vinegar, is, commercially, a pungent, colorless liquid, obtained chiefly either by dry distillation of wood or by the oxidation of alcohol by means of ferments.

Pyroligneous Acid, the crude product obtained by wood distillation, is the preservative principle developed in the smoking of hams, etc.

ACETIC ETHER: is obtained by treatment of acetic and sulphuric acids and alcohol. It is extensively employed in the manufacture of many imitation fruit extracts, particularly cherry, currant, peach, pear, raspberry and strawberry.

ACIDULATED: rendered acid or sour. "Acidulated drops" are an old-fashioned candy similar to the modern lemon and lime drops.

ACORN: the seed of the oak. Acorns are important now only as an occasional food for cattle, but in the early days they served as one of the principal articles of human diet in temperate zones, and even in modern times, during periods of scarcity, they have been found an acceptable food by European peasants. They are said to be occasionally poisonous during the autumn months.

ADULTERATION. The grocer is never an advocate of adulteration. Some manufacturers adulterate for the sake of profit, but even then they are generally driven to it unwillingly by the demand for cheap goods. A fair price is necessary to secure pure goods.

[Illustration: An illustration of a complex of buildings surrounding a large stockyard.]

The cry of adulteration goes to great extremes; the desire to appear critical and to be considered a good judge gives rise to much of it, and no sensible dealer will encourage it. Indeed, an honest and intelligent investigation nearly always proves that at least half the accusations are unfounded.

It should also be remembered that there are many food items which are not desirable when absolutely pure--mustard is "adulterated" by nearly every large manufacturer by the addition of flour, because it is too pungent in its natural


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state; such "adulteration" is not only harmless but may be defended as perfectly proper and justifiable.

Again, many of the statements with regard to adulteration are rendered alarming by the misuse of chemical terms. To tell the average consumer that a table syrup is made of "glucose" is to state a mystery; to say that it is made of "starch treated with hydrochloric or muriatic acid" would cause alarm--yet the final result is a thoroughly wholesome product whose principal constituents are "sugars" identical with, or closely allied to, those into which the sucrose of flowers is converted by bees in the manufacture of honey, and all starchy food is converted by the human stomach in the ordinary process of digestion.

If, as modern medicine asserts, a state of dread affords a direct opening to disease, the alarmists are as dangerous as the adulterists, and it would seem better to live in ignorance than to be frightened out of the world by too critical inquiries as to what we eat or drink.

Much adulteration exists which is deleterious to health, but, unfortunately, it is generally where it is least expected and rarely detected. Laws of the most stringent character are enforced in Great Britain, and fall very oppressively on retail grocers, many of whom purchase goods the purity of which they are unable to determine.

AERATED BREAD: is that leavened by the addition of carbon-dioxide. See general article on BREAD.

AERATED WATER: is, correctly speaking, distilled water to which purified filtered air is added to improve its flavor. The term is, however, frequently applied to Carbonated Waters (which see).

AGUARDIENTE: a brandy made in Spain, Portugal and several Spanish-American countries.

ALBUMEN: a thick, viscous substance found in both vegetable and animal matter. It is the most valuable component of meat, flour and many other foods (see FOOD VALUES). The best natural example is the white of an egg, which is nearly pure albumen. Chemically pure albumin is almost colorless, odorless and tasteless and is insoluble in pure water. In France, large quantities are prepared at the abattoirs by drying the blood of the cattle killed. It is used to clarify wine, syrups and other liquids, in photography, the textile industries, etc. In cases of poisoning by mineral acids the white of an egg is a valuable antidote.

ALCOHOL, Ethyl Alcohol (also called Grain Alcohol, Root Alcohol, Spirits of Wine, etc., according to the source): occurs as the result of fermentation--i.e., the effect of the growth of yeast cells, either wild or cultivated (see YEAST)--of liquid containing a moderate amount of any one of several forms of "sugar." The sugary element is the result of the conversion of starch, either by natural growth in grapes, sugar beets, etc., or by the action of malt diastase, etc., on the starch of grains (see WHISKY), potatoes, etc. The alcohol is extracted from the fermented liquid by the process of Distillation (which see).

Pure alcohol is transparent and colorless, agreeable in odor, of strong and pungent taste and highly volatile and inflammable, burning with a pale blue or smokeless


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flame. If thoroughly refined, the product is identical--both by chemical analysis and in appearance, flavor, etc.--no matter what the source of the original starch.

Brandy and Whisky generally contain about one-half alcohol in volume. "Proof spirit" contains approximately half in weight but somewhat more by volume.

In addition to its use in spirituous liquors, alcohol is employed in an almost infinite variety of ways--in the arts, in the electrical world, in the manufacture of artificial silk, leather, etc., by perfumers, chemists, extract makers, anatomists, naturalists, etc. As Denatured Alcohol (see following), its scope has been greatly widened within the last few years.

Denatured Alcohol: is merely ordinary alcohol with special ingredients added in order to make it impossible to drink it, the purpose being to cheapen it for industrial and commercial purposes by avoiding the heavy government tax on alcohol which can be consumed in beverages. The additional ingredients make it injurious to health and objectionable in both taste and odor, but do not detract from its commercial efficiency. Furthermore, when once denatured, there is little likelihood of it being improperly used, as it is both expensive and difficult to extract the foreign ingredients.

There are two forms of alcohol so treated--one completely denatured and the other specially denatured--the latter for uses for which the former would not be suitable.

The most generally approved formula for completely denatured alcohol adds ten gallons of wood (methyl) alcohol and one-half gallon of petroleum benzine to each hundred gallons of ordinary (ethyl) alcohol.

Among the many possible additions for specially denatured alcohol are camphor, benzol, castor-oil and soda lye, sulphuric ether, etc.

Alcohol for industrial purposes is in Germany made chiefly from potatoes, in France from beets, and in this country from grains, molasses, etc. Its manufacture adds appreciably to the wealth of the nation by turning to account damaged and spoiled grains, vegetables and fruits--all of which can be converted into alcohol thoroughly serviceable for industrial purposes.

The commercial uses of alcohol, when obtainable at a low price, are almost innumerable. In the household it serves as a clean, cheap and serviceable substitute for gas or electricity, for both illumination and cooking. Its possibilities promise to be illimitable, for in France a new process has been discovered by which it may be produced by chemical synthesis, and it is predicted that the cost of such production can be reduced to less than ten cents a gallon.

ALE. This was apparently the current name in England for all malt liquor before the introduction of hops, about 1524. Later, the word "beer" was similarly employed.

The principal difference in the brewing of modern Ale and Lager Beer is found in the process of fermentation. Ale is a "high" or "top" fermentation at about 58° Fahr.; Lager, a "low" or "bottom" fermentation at about 40° Fahr. Each requires a special yeast. The percentage of alcohol varies from four to six per cent in ale against from three to five in lager beer, the difference being due to the greater quantity of malt used in the former.

In America, ale is brewed chiefly from malted barley, grain, cerealin (a compound resembling diastase), grape sugar and hops. All varieties may be grouped under two heads: "Present Use" or "Cream" or "Light Draught" ale, intended for immediate


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consumption, and "Stock Ale," containing more alcohol and extract, intended to be kept for months or years, either bottled or in casks.

Light Draught ales are distinctly an American product, the tendency here being toward clear, light types. In the endeavor to attain this result, some brewers have sacrificed much in flavor, but others have been successful in producing a true "Ale" with a lager beer finish.

English and Scotch ales enjoy a high reputation. The latter are distinguished by the small quantity of hops employed and their marked vinous flavor. India Pale Ale derives its name from a variety originally brewed for the East Indies market, which was especially heavily hopped to better withstand the hot climate. "Bitter Ale" is similarly made by using a large proportion of hops.

"Half & Half" is a mixture of half ale and half porter (see STOUT).

"Musty," in New England, signifies a mixture of ale and lager beer.

When properly drawn, ale should be perfectly clear, contain sufficient carbon-dioxide (carbonic acid gas) to produce a foam or collar on top and a slight champagne effervescence, and have the aromatic smell of hops. It should never be exposed to the air in an open vessel, because of its tendency to ferment and sour.

When brewed by the newest methods, ale does not become turbid at low temperatures, and when bottled and pasteurized can be kept indefinitely without sediment, remaining clear even when packed on ice.

Bottled ale should be kept on its side in a cool place--the temperature preferably not below 44° nor above 50° Fahr.

ALEBERRY: a beverage made by boiling ale with spice, sugar and bread-sops, the last commonly toasted. A domestic remedy for a cold.

ALEWIFE: an American species of herring, taken along the coast from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Chesapeake Bay. It is largely exported after salting to the West Indies.

[Illustration: An illustration of a small fish with pointed fins.]

ALKALINE WATERS. See MINERAL WATERS.

ALKANET: the dark red root of a deciduous plant, of blackish appearance externally but inside showing a blue-red meat, surrounding a whitish core. It readily gives up its red color on infusion in spirits, oils, etc., but not in water, which derives from it only a dirty brown color. Alkanet is used by perfumers, etc., and it is also employed occasionally to color cheese, to improve the appearance of poor grades of port and similar wines, to give the appearance of age to port wine corks, etc.

ALLIGATOR APPLE: a large, smooth, heart-shaped tropical and sub-tropical fruit. The flesh is sweet-scented and agreeable in flavor, but so strongly narcotic that it has never attained general popular use.

ALLIGATOR PEAR, or Avocado: a tropical fruit, native to Mexico and northern South America but now widely grown also in the West Indies and in Florida and other Southern States.

The tree is a fine spreading evergreen with large leaves of oval shape and bright green color, a free producer under good circumstances. The fruit, big and heavy, weighing


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[Illustration: A color illustration of a large round speckled vegetable, underneath which a second vegetable--this one pear-shaped, with darker skin--has been cut in half to display a smooth interior and one huge seed shaped like a teardrop.]




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[Illustration: A leafy tree branch laden with pear-shaped fruit.]

up to four pounds, consists of a single large rugged seed wrapped in a membranous cover, inside a firm, buttery flesh of bright greenish-yellow color, containing from ten to twenty percent of greenish oil. The outer skin is tough and leathery, varying in color, some being bright green, others yellow, brownish green, dark purple or red, etc. The most common shapes are the oval, pear-shaped and round or bell. The large green fruits are considered the best.

Alligator Pears are now obtainable nearly all the year round--the first supplies from Colombo and other parts of South America reach the Eastern markets in January or thereabouts, the Cuban fruits following in April and continuing through the summer to October, those from Jamaica continuing to November and from Trinidad and Granada to January. The Florida supply is heaviest during the months of July and August.

Alligator Pears have advanced considerably in favor during recent years. They deserve still greater popularity, as the large percentage of easily digested vegetable oil or fat makes their flesh exceptionally nutritious.

The fruit is served in halves or sections, as cantaloupes, to be eaten with salt, and pepper and vinegar if desired, or with a little lime or lemon juice and sugar--or the flesh is cut in slices or cubes, similarly dressed or served with French salad dressing. If the flesh is cut into little grooves with a sharp knife, the dressing will be more easily absorbed.

The flesh of the ripe alligator pear is of about the consistence of well-made butter. The fruit is just right when the flesh will yield gently to a slight pressure of the fingers. The skin is then easily peeled off the pulp.

ALLSPICE, also called Pimento and Jamaica Pepper: is the dried fruit of a small West Indian tree called the Pimento. It is about the size of a pepper, or small pea, and is gathered when fully grown, but not ripened, and dried in the sun. It is called Allspice from its supposed resemblance in flavor to a mixture of cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves. It is often used in place of cinnamon.

[Illustration: A sprig of a plant with two long leaves and bunches of small buds at the top.]

ALMERIA GRAPES. See article on GRAPES.

ALMONDS: rated commercially among the most valuable nuts, are the kernels of the fruit of a tree, which is said to be a native of the East and of Africa but which long ago became fully naturalized throughout the whole South of Europe and is now grown with equal facility in California. It resembles the peach tree both in size and appearance. The fruit ripens generally in July and August, and the new nut crop is ready for shipment in October.

Almonds are divided into "Sweet" and "Bitter," only the former being sold as an edible nut. Sweet Almonds are subdivided into several types, varying considerably in size and shape. In the shell there are three principal grades--Paper Shell, soft


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[Illustration: An illustration of a number of men working beneath a row of trees, using long poles to reach up into the tree branches.]

Shell and Hard Shell--both imported and from California.

Of the imported Shelled Almonds, the best known are the Jordan and Valencia, chiefly from Malaga, Spain. Jordan Almonds are long and plump and pointed at one end--the type shown on the Color Page facing page 414. They are highly esteemed both as a dessert item and for confectionery purposes. Valencias are about three-eighths of an inch long, round at one end and obtusely pointed at the other.

Bitter Almonds, imported chiefly from Mogadore, Morocco, are used only for their oils, for flavoring, etc. See ALMOND OIL, following.

Green Almonds are young sweet almonds. They are often preserved in sugar.

Burnt Almonds are roasted sweet almonds. They are done up with sugar when destined for use as confectionery, being then known also as "Pralines" and "Sugar Almonds." Roasted plain, they are employed for coloring and flavoring liquors.

Blanched Almonds are sweet almonds with the skins removed.

Almonds are also sold Ground (dried and crushed), Salted, etc.

ALMOND EXTRACT: is a solution of Oil of Bitter Almonds, about 1%, in alcohol of fair strength.

ALMOND OIL: is obtained by expression from the ground kernels or seeds of the sweet or bitter almond, apricot or peach. It is largely employed in perfumery. The best qualities are light yellow or white in color, almost entirely free from odor and possessing only a mild, nutty flavor. Oil of Bitter Almonds is an entirely different product, which is not obtainable by the cold, or only slightly warm, expression employed for Almond Oil--it is a volatile oil extracted by distillation from the crushed kernels of bitter almonds, apricots or peaches, after the expression of Almond Oil. In concentrated form, Oil of Bitter Almonds is poisonous because of the large quantity of hydrocyanic or prussic acid it contains, but in diluted form, as in Almond Extract, it is a popular flavoring in confectionery, cooking, etc.

ALMOND MEAL, ALMOND PASTE: are made from ground sweet almonds, after the extraction of Almond Oil. They are much used in pastry and confectionery--in the manufacture of almond macaroons and other sweet pastries, in fancy cake and pie filling, etc.

ALMOND MILK: is an emulsion of almond oil and water. It has an opaque, milky appearance.

ALMOND SYRUP: if of high quality, is an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds in barley syrup (then generally known as Orgeat Syrup), or in a syrup of Orange Flower


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Water and sugar. Ten parts of sweet almonds are generally employed to three parts of bitter almonds.

ALUM: a salt composed of the combined sulphates of Potassium and Aluminum. It crystallizes in cubes and eight-sided forms, and has a sweetish astringent taste. It is sometimes employed by bakers to whiten their bread. That used in Baking Powders is Burnt Alum--a white spongy substance produced by heating alum until it melts and then driving off all the moisture by additional roasting. Its employment in baking powders has been much abused by parties interested in other preparations, but if completely neutralized it is harmless. The taste test is a poor one, as no raw baking powder has a pleasant flavor, and an overdose of cream of tartar would be about as bad as one of burnt alum!

AMERICAN WINES. American wine makers have duplicated nearly all the European Wines in popular demand. In some the results are disappointing to the connoisseur because probably of differences in climate and soil, as well as in handling, but in others a high measure of success has been attained--especially in Red wines of the Claret (or Bordeaux), Burgundy and Italian types; White wines, such as "Champagnes" and Rhine and Moselle types; Sauternes, and the stronger wines, such as Port, Sherry, Madeira, Malaga, etc. There are also several American wines which have won distinction under entirely new names, noteworthy among them being Angelica, Catawba, Concord, Delaware, Scuppernong and Zinfandel.

Still wines are produced in both the East and in California, and to a limited extent in the South; "Champagnes" principally in the East, especially in western New York, and the Central States.

In the East the grapes chiefly grown for sparkling wines are the Catawba and Delaware (see article on GRAPES), Elviras and Dutchess (white grapes), and the Isabella and Eumalans (black grapes). The wines from several or all of these six, and other, varieties are blended in the making of the best domestic "Champagnes." The Concord (also described and illustrated in the article on GRAPES) is used for both red and white still wines and the Clinton and Ives for heavy red wines.

The most famous of Southern wine grapes are the Scuppernong (which see), Norton and Ives, the last two especially noteworthy as the source of fine clarets.

The largest wine product is that of California, the average output exceeding 40,000,000 gallons a year, about 25,000,000 gallons of which is "dry" wine. The greater part of the dry-wine district is in the neighborhood of the Bay of San Francisco, the modification of the temperature there by the sea fogs resulting in grapes ripening at the particular sugar and acidity points which are the most suitable for its fermentation. The sweet wines are produced very largely in the hot interior valleys, where the grapes ripen at a comparatively high sugar and low acid point. The industry is conducted on a very large scale, especially in the sweet wine districts--there are many wineries which crush more than 10,000 tons of grapes every season.

AMMONIA: is a gas consisting of Nitrogen and Hydrogen, marked by a strong pungent smell and possessing alkaline properties. Its common form, Spirits of Ammonia or Hartshorn, is water saturated with the gas.

The many household uses of Ammonia are familiar to all. It is also about the best thing to apply to the bites or stings of insects and is said to be an excellent fire


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extinguisher. It is sometimes used in baking powders, but being extremely volatile it soon loses its strength.

ANCHOVY: a small fish of fine and peculiar flavor, a member of the herring tribe, and closely resembling the English Sprat. It is found in several parts of Europe, but is most abundant in the Mediterranean, especially in the vicinity of the Island of Gorgona, near Leghorn, where also the catch is generally conceded to be of the finest quality.

[Illustration: An illustration of a small fish.]

Anchovies are prepared for exportation by removing the heads, intestines and pectoral fins and packing in rock salt in small kegs; to be later bottled, whole or filleted, in oil or salt, etc., or otherwise repacked for retailing. Dutch anchovies are cleaned of their scales, the French and Italian are not. The small fish are valued more highly than the larger.

Anchovies are also extensively potted and made into a butter or paste and a sauce or essence. The ancient Greeks and Romans prepared the sauce or relish known as "Garum" from them.

ANCHOVY ESSENCE: a pink-colored, thick, oily sauce, consisting of pounded anchovies, spices, etc., used as a flavoring for soups, sauces, etc.

ANCHOVY PEAR: a brown russet fruit borne by a very ornamental tropical tree, thirty to fifty feet in height, with large flowers and leaves averaging three feet in length. It tastes somewhat like a mango and is used in the same way.

ANGEL FISH, sometimes, but incorrectly, called a "Porgy": a dark-grey southern fish, resembling a Butterfish, but with long side-fins, weighing generally from three to ten pounds, but sometimes caught very much larger. It is in season during July and August. The flesh resembles in taste that of the Sheepshead.

ANGELICA: an aromatic plant, native to the Alps, which grows wild in Europe, as far North as Iceland and Lapland. The natives of the latter country use the fleshy roots as food and the stalks as medicine. Commercially, the young and tender leaf stalks and midribs are candied for sale as confectionery, and the roots and seeds are employed to flavor gin.

[Illustration: An illustration of a small flowering plant with fernlike leaves, shown from the blossoms to the roots.]

ANGELICA Wine: "white" sweet aromatic domestic wine, resembling Tokay in style. Some varieties consist of the unfermented grape juice fortified with brandy or clear spirit immediately after pressing; others are partly fermented before fortifying.

ANGOSTURA, or Angustura: an aromatic bitters which takes its name from the town of Angostura, Venezuela, the original place of manufacture. It is used as a digestive tonic and for flavoring beverages, etc. It is now made in Trinidad, British West Indies.

ANILINE DYES: a general name for coal-tar dyes, which are chiefly made from aniline, obtained from nitro-benzene. See DYES.

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[Illustration: A color illustration of seven different apple varieties, each labeled with a number.]

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ANISE SEED, Aniseed: the minute seeds of an annual plant, cultivated chiefly in Spain, Egypt, Syria and other Mediterranean countries, but also to a large extent in Germany, principally in the vicinity of Erfurt. It is used as a condiment, in the manufacture of liqueurs, candy, etc.

[Illustration: Two illustrations of different plants; one shows only the star-shaped fruit of a plant, labeled "Chinese." The second, labeled "Common," shows a flowering plant with tall, thin stems and delicate compound leaves.]

Star or Chinese Anise, imported mainly from China, is in flavor similar to Common Anise, but is very different in appearance, being star shaped and frequently of a total diameter of about an inch.

ANISETTE, Crème d'Anise: a liqueur with aniseed flavor. See general article on LIQUEURS.

ANNATTO, or Annato, Arnotto, Arnatto: a red color extracted from the reddish pulp which surrounds the seeds of the Arnatto tree, found principally in South America and the West Indies. It is exported chiefly in cakes of two or more pounds weight, generally wrapped in leaves. Externally it usually presents a brown appearance.

[Illustration: A sprig of a plant with broad leaves and a bunch of flowers with round petals at the top.]

Annatto is frequently used in coloring butter and cheese--giving the former the rich yellow hue required by the consumer without affecting its quality.

ANTELOPES: the general title of a large and varied class of deer and similar animals. The flesh of some is excellent, that of others not generally agreeable to the human palate. See VENISON.

ANTS. The only point concerning these troublesome insects that is of real interest to the grocer is how to get rid of them. The remedies suggested are as numerous as those for a cold! Here are a few:

Balsam of Peru. Rub a thin film of it near the bottoms of the table legs or on the floor, and renew the application in three weeks. In addition, boil one ounce of the balsam in a gallon of water for thirty minutes, and sponge this water, while hot, over wooden floors and walls.

Powdered Borax and Pulverized Alum. Sprinkle underneath the paper on the shelves.

Oil of Sassafras. Follow the train--for ants form a train in traveling--to its origin. Saturate a small cloth with the oil and apply to every portion of the distance covered. If they come out of a crack, pour a little of the oil into it--it is sure death to them.

If ants become troublesome about the pastry case in the summer time, insulate it by raising it on four inverted cups set in saucers filled with water. Give the case a good cleaning and in half a day the ants will become discouraged. Do not leave the case insulated longer than is necessary, as it is suggestive.

APHIS: a plant louse or insect which feeds on vegetables, fruits, etc., and is a source of much loss to farmers and gardeners. It is also of scientific interest because of its


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faculty of emitting a sweet fluid known as "honey dew" or "aphis sugar," which is eagerly sought by ants.

APENTA: a still and sparkling Hungarian aperient water. See MINERAL WATERS.

APOLLINARIS: a noted effervescent table water. See MINERAL WATERS.

APPENZELL: a cheese similar to "Swiss" or Emmenthaler. See article on CHEESE.

APPLES. This well-known fruit has been much improved by cultivation from its original wild state, which is still seen in the crab apple--a small, acid, almost uneatable fruit, and yet the parent of the 1,500 varieties now used in so many ways--for eating raw, in cooking and preserving, for jellies and desserts, for cider and vinegar, etc. The cultivated tree is at its prime when about fifty years old and will bear fruit for more than a hundred years.

The apple contains an abundance of potassium and sodium salts and its acids are thought to be of great benefit to persons of sedentary habits. A ripe raw apple digests in eighty-five minutes. The practice of serving apple-sauce with roast pork, rich goose and similar dishes is based on scientific reasons.

The different varieties vary widely in taste, appearance and time of ripening. Fifteen of the best known types are shown on the accompanying Color Pages--opposite, and facing page 22.

The Early Harvest, a small yellow sweetish type, is one of the first to make its appearance, ushering in what are commonly known as the "summer apples." Of these, the leading varieties are the Highglow, very handsome and fine-flavored, the Sourbough and the Gravenstein--the last-named generally rather large, roundish but somewhat irregular in shape and in color greenish to orange yellow, striped or mottled with red. Of smaller size but of attractive red skin and tender, juicy, sub-acid flesh is the June, very popular in the West and South.

Next come the "Fall Apples," the best of which are: the Maiden Blush, medium to large in size, oblate and regular in shape, and in color yellow with crimson blush; the Belleflower; several varieties of the Holland Pippin, of good keeping quality, medium size, flattish in shape and yellow in color--inclining sometimes to green, and occasionally to red; the Fall Pippin, large, round and yellow, and the Strawberry Pippin.

Of the "Winter Apples," the leading varieties are the Greening, Baldwin, Northern Spy, Spitzenburg, Seek-no-further, Lady Sweet, Gill Flower or Sheep's-nose, Green Sweet, Swaar, Streaked Pippin, Russet, Newton Pippin, etc. More Greenings are sold than of any other winter type, it being the general family apple, both raw and cooked. When first gathered in the fall it is of bright green color, but this gradually changes to a rich mature yellow. The Baldwins are comparatively inferior, generally of a dry, insipid flavor, but they are largely bought because they are sound and fine looking, frequently presenting a better appearance than really superior apples. The Northern Spy and Spitzenburg are generally considered the highest types of the "Baldwin" class of apple--good specimens are handsomely colored and excellent in flavor and quality. The Spitzenburg is of deep rich yellow, nearly covered with bright red, with darker red stripes. The Northern Spy is of similar colors but generally shows more yellow. The "Seek-no-further" is usually of deep yellow, but some varieties are bright red. The Lady Sweet or Pommeroy, one of the most desirable of "sweet apples" for general market


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[Illustration: A color illustration of eight different apple varieties, each labeled with a number.]




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purposes, is of fine red and yellow color, good shape and flavor and excellent keeping qualities. The Gill Flower is commonly called the Sheep's-nose from its peculiar pointed shape. The Green Sweet is a crisp, brittle, juicy fruit, and one of the best late-keeping sweet apples. The Swaar, generally of greenish or yellow color effect, is not attractive in appearance but it is noted as a fine dessert fruit. The Streaked Pippin is a large fruit of mixed red and yellow color, of good edible and cooking qualities. The Russet is the latest comer and the hardiest and is usually kept until the other varieties are beginning to disappear. The Newton or Golden Pippin is now raised chiefly for export to Europe, where it is much esteemed.

Another beautiful and delicious fruit is the Rennet, of regular shape, skin of rusty tinge and flesh of sweet acid and delicately aromatic flavor. It is not, though, a good keeping apple.

The care of apples is simple but exact. They should be kept dry and cool--the colder the better, short of freezing--and all bruised or decaying fruit must be removed at once from contact with sound fruit, as otherwise the trouble will speedily spread to an alarming extent.

The packing of apples is changing. The barrel is being superseded by the box--which is a great deal better suited to the retail trade. In the Northwestern and Pacific States it is employed exclusively. The box most commonly used measures inside 9 3/4 inches high, by 10 3/4 inches wide and about 20 3/4 inches long, and holds about one bushel, or nearly fifty pounds of fruit, varying slightly according to the variety.

When the box package is used, the fruit should be carefully graded to uniform size and packed in layers. If wrapped in paper, similar to that used for oranges, a higher price can be obtained than for unwrapped fruit. A fancy display label bearing the title of the fruit and the name of the grower or dealer should be prominently displayed on each box.

Apple Storage. The bulk of the apples placed in cold-storage warehouses begin to come into the market after the Christmas holidays, those first sent out being the less hardy varieties which will not keep for any great length of time. Some very choice types can be carried over until early in July, just reaching the season when the earlier varieties of the new crop are ready.

[Illustration: A group of men stand in an orchard filling up large barrels with apples that are being brought in baskets.]

Apples are placed in the cold-storage rooms in exactly the same barrels and boxes in which they are shipped from the grower, not even a barrel-head or box-lid being removed. The temperature is kept constantly at about 32° Fahr., and it is a pretty safe assertion that any apples going into the warehouse in perfect condition will


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still be found so when displayed for sale on their re-appearance in the markets.

The New England system of packing apples in sand is said to be a fair substitute where cold storage is not available. A layer of dry sand is placed in the bottom of the barrel and on this a layer of apples, none of the apples, though, touching each other. Dry sand is then placed both between and over the fruit, the process being continued until the barrel is full. Apples packed in this manner keep well, and if one or two in a layer are slightly affected the sand prevents the trouble from being communicated to the others.

Evaporated Apples. The best grades of evaporated apples are sold as "Fancy," the second quality as "Choice" and the third as "Prime." None but the finest varieties of the white-fleshed kinds should be used for the highest grade "Fancy." Fruit that is too poor to be worked into the "Prime" class is generally utilized by chopping and evaporating the whole fruit, without peeling or coring. The product is known as "chops" and is chiefly exported.

The greater part of the evaporated apple output is handled in 50 lb. boxes, especially for export, bakers' supplies, etc., but for private trade a considerable quantity is put up in cartons, weighing generally 1 lb. gross. The latter method is the most generally satisfactory for retailing, especially if the cartons or boxes are correctly labeled with the name of the variety. The labeling is important because of the differing qualities and characteristics of the many kinds. When bulked indiscriminately, a single large box may contain a dozen different varieties, many of them unfit for cooking, and the result of their use is very liable to be disappointing.

See also general article on DRIED AND EVAPORATED FRUIT.

APPLE JACK: the New Jersey name for Apple Brandy. It is plentiful in most of the Eastern States and, as it is generally cheaper than any other spirit, it serves a good purpose in cooking, for sauces, flavoring extracts, etc.

APRICOT: a fruit which in appearance suggests a small yellow peach, but which is borne by a tree of the same genus as the plum. It is eaten in every imaginable way--fresh, the fine varieties being especially valued for desserts; canned, dried, candied, made into jam, etc. It may be prepared for use by the housewife in any way that peaches are.

The apricot was introduced into Europe during the time of Alexander the Great, and was first cultivated in England during the sixteenth century.

The fresh apricot season commences about the middle of June and lasts for about eight weeks.

The California dried apricot product amounts annually to 15,000 tons or more and is supplemented by the great quantity canned there. Only a comparatively small part of the California crop is marketed fresh, as the fruit is of such delicate texture that it does not stand shipment well.

There is also a limited importation of dried and candied apricots from Italy and the south of France.

APRICOT BRANDY: a liquor distilled from fermented apricot juice.

APRICOTINE, Crème d'Abricot. See general article on LIQUEURS AND CORDIALS.

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[Illustration: A color illustration of an apricot branch laden with three ripe apricots. An inlaid box shows an apricot split in half to display the pit.]

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AQUA VITAE, Latin for "water of life": a name familiarly applied to the leading native distilled spirit. Thus, it is "usquebaugh" or whisky in Scotland and Ireland; "geneva" or gin in Holland; and "eau de vie" (French for "water of life") or brandy in France. When the term is employed in England, French brandy is understood.

AQUAVIT, a modification of Aqua Vitae: a liquor distilled from wheat and potatoes, originally made in Norway.

ARACHIDE OIL: another name for Peanut Oil (which see).

ARGOL: is crude Cream of Tartar (which see). It is held in solution in the juice of grapes but it is not soluble in alcoholic fluids, so the formation of alcohol during the fermentation of wine results in its precipitation. In wines bottled before they are fully ripe, the argol is precipitated on the side of the bottle in a sort of crust, thus forming what is called "crusted wine." The imported product comes chiefly from France and Italy.

AROMA: a pleasing odor, a delicately rich and spicy fragrance, generally applied to the fragrance of wine, coffee, etc.

ARRACK, Arack, Arracki, Ariki, Araka, etc.: a general name for numerous spirituous liquors drunk in the East, variously made from coarse palm sugar or "Jaggery," rice, kumiss, the juice of dates, cocoanuts and other palms, etc.

The "Saki" or Rice Spirit of Japan is a softened sound of "Arracki."

Arrack is consumed here to a limited extent, that from Batavia being considered the best. It is too powerful to be generally popular as a beverage, but it finds favor for use in punches and with grape fruit, etc. When sliced pineapples are put into Arrack and the spirit is kept for some time, it mellows to a delicious flavor and many consider it then unrivaled for "nectarial punch" or "rack punch."

ARROW-ROOT: a starch obtained from the root of a West Indian plant, largely cultivated in all tropical countries. Its name is said to have been obtained from the fact that the Indians used the fresh roots to cure the wounds made by poisoned arrows. More probably it is derived from Ara, the old Indian name of the plant.

[Illustration: An illustration of the roots of a plant, accompanied by a second illustration of a stem with broad leaves that terminates in two small bell-shaped flowers.]

The roots are dug when they are about a year old. When good, they contain about 23 per cent. of starch. In Bermuda and Jamaica they are first washed, then cleaned of the paper-like scale, washed again, drained and finally reduced to a pulp by beating them in mortars or subjecting them to the action of the wheel-rasp. The milky liquid thus obtained is passed through a coarse cloth or hair sieve and the starch allowed to settle at the bottom as an insoluble powder. This powder, dried in the sun or in drying houses, is the "arrow-root" of commerce and it is at once packed for market in air-tight cans, packages or cases.

Arrow-root has in the past been quite extensively adulterated with potato starch and other similar substances, so care is needed in selection and buying. The genuine


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article is a light, white powder (the mass feeling firm to the finger and crackling like newly fallen snow when rubbed or pressed), odorless when dry, but emitting a faint, peculiar odor when mixed with boiling water, and swelling on cooking into perfect jelly, very smooth in consistence--in contradistinction to adulterated articles mixed with potato flour and other starches of lower value which contain larger particles.

Arrow-root is used as an article of diet in the form of biscuits, puddings, jellies, cakes, etc., and also with beef tea, milk or veal broth, or plain boiled with a little flavoring added, as an easily digestible food for invalids and children.

ARTICHOKE: a plant resembling the thistle, which is cultivated for its flowering head, gathered before the flower expands. The edible portion is the fleshy part of the calyx--the "bottom" or basin of the blossom--and the base of the leaves of the flower. The flesh corresponds to what children call the "cheese" of the ordinary thistle. As eaten here, it is generally boiled before serving, but in Europe it is popular raw, seasoned only with salt and pepper.

[Illustration: An illustration of an artichoke cut in half to display the inner structure.]

If cut so as to leave an inch or two of stem, artichokes possess good keeping qualities, frequently remaining quite fresh for two weeks or longer under average retail conditions.

Canned artichokes, principally the fonds or "bottoms" only, are imported in large quanties from Italy and France. The small artichoke buds are used chiefly for garnishing.

The Jerusalem Artichoke (which see) is an entirely different plant.

ASH: a word generally employed in food analysis to designate the mineral components (salts, etc.), as they form the residue or "ash" left after the application of heat sufficient to destroy all combustible components. See FOOD VALUES.

ASHES. Formerly, all wood ashes were saved by prudent housewives and used for soap making, because of their strong percentage of lye, and in some sections the ashes of plants, especially of ferns, are still dampened and roughly made into balls for use in house cleaning. The cheapness of modern cleaning compounds has, though, practically ended this little economy.

ASPARAGUS: a native of Europe, which was a favorite vegetable of the ancient Romans. In this country, only the "spears" are eaten but in other parts of the world the seeds have been largely used for coffee--they are still recommended for that purpose in some parts of Europe--and a fermented spirit is made from the berries.

An asparagus bed will continue to produce for a century, but it is at its best between the third and sixth years. Its commercial productivity is generally limited to fifteen years, as the stalks become smaller and less desirable with age unless fertilization is very heavy. The roots are buried from four to ten inches below the level and the sprouts or spears are cut as soon as they reach the surface or a few inches above it and are then tied in bunches for the market.

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[Illustration: A collage (in color) of several varieties of asparagus and the tools used to cut and bundle the vegetable. An inset box shows a bundle of asparagus tied at the top and bottom.]

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The extension of cultivation has resulted in changing asparagus from a vegetable almost exclusively for the well-to-do into one within the reach of nearly everybody. It is furthermore a vegetable of great adaptability--it can be readily grown all the year round, though the northern winter supply is necessarily somewhat expensive, and is nearly as good canned as fresh.

The two principal market divisions are into the "green," in all sizes and qualities and varying from bright green to purplish; and the "white," generally more or less tinted with purple and usually in the large size. The white is obtained chiefly by deep planting of the roots or by banking earth up around the shoots, but some special varieties grow nearly white without this assistance. The preference for one or the other is in some sections a matter of fixed local sentiment, and in others is subject to changing fashion. New England and Southern trade perfer the green; the West and Northwest, the white, and New York vacillates between the two.

In cooking fine fresh asparagus, it is best to stand the bunch on end, leaving about an inch of the tips above the surface of the water. In this way it is possible to cook the spears thoroughly without destroying the appearance of the tips. If the tips are not sufficiently cooked by the steam, the bunch may be laid on its side for a few minutes immediately prior to taking out.

ASPIC: the name given to a clear savory jelly made from meat and used to decorate entrées, tongues, salads, etc. The word is derived from "Spike jelly," i. e., jelly flavored with "Spike" or "French" lavender, at one time a popular dessert.

ASSETS: the whole available property of a merchant or a firm. In computing the assets of a store a great mistake is made when everything in stock is put down at its original price. The available value is rarely more than what the goods would bring at auction.

AVOCADO: a salad fruit gaining in popularity. See ALLIGATOR PEAR.

AVOIRDUPOIS: the system of weights used for everything except medicines, precious stones and precious metals. A pound avoirdupois contains 16 ounces or 7,000 grains (see Weights in APPENDIX). The name is derived from the old French word aver (goods) de (of) peis (weight).

AWNINGS: are made usually from sail duck canvas and vary in price and durability according to the heaviness of the canvas. Permanent awnings are often of corrugated iron, but the best qualities of canvas ought to last very nearly as long. The practice of whitewashing the awning in order to prevent mildew, is a useless waste of time and money--it does prevent mildew, but the lime in the whitewash eats into the cloth and renders it brittle and rotten. The tendency to forbid fixed roofs or awnings over the public streets is steadily growing, but the grocer will often find smaller awnings over his outside display of fruits and vegetables profitable if not really indispensible.

AXLE-GREASE: used for lubricating axles. The basis of the different brands is a compound of fatty oils to which is added tar, graphite, or mica to increase the durability of the grease and give it a better surface.

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BABCOCK TEST: widely employed for determining the richness of milk and cream. The essential principle of the process is that sulphuric acid added in the proper proportion dissolves all components of the milk except the fat, permitting the entire fat content to rise to the surface to be measured. In creameries, to facilitate the process, the samples held in closed test-bottles, are, after the addition of the acid, agitated in centrifugal machines for some minutes before and after the application of a certain quantity of hot water.

BACON: is the cured and smoked meat of the breast-pieces, sides and belly of the pig, the breast-pieces being generally employed for choice "breakfast bacon."

In buying, one should look for thin rind and fairly even streaking of tender red lean and firm white fat. That with yellow fat should be avoided. As it loses in weight with keeping, a retailer should not carry it in greater quantities than required to meet current demands.

Bacon should be kept in a cool, dry place. The injunction to avoid exposure to the sun, applies with particular force to the sliced varieties packed in tin and glass.

Instead of purchasing bacon by the pound and having it cut in slices, the average householder will do better to take it by the whole strip in canvassed or wrapped form. If freshly cured when bought and if the cover is replaced each time after opening, it is easily kept in good condition until consumed.

Bacon is a nutritious as well as popular article of diet. Some people of sedentary habits find it hard to digest, but the choicer kinds are quite frequently prescribed as part of invalid dietaries, in place of cod liver oil and similar preparations, the curing and smoking of the bacon-fat aiding in its assimilation.

Broiling is the best method of cooking bacon, but careful frying will do fairly well. The slices or rashers should be very thin, not less than six slices to the inch. The skin on the one side and the smoke-colored edge on the other should be cut off before cooking. The broiler or pan should be warm before the slices are put on and the fire should be brisk. Some people like the bacon crisp, but it is more acceptable to the average palate when nicely browned but still elastic. It should be eaten immediately after cooking, as if allowed to stand for any length of time both flavor and tenderness are lost to a large extent. See Color Page opposite 292.

BACTERIA: the family name which includes a great many of the smallest varieties of micro-organisms or "microbes"--minute vegetable growths. They are found in three chief forms--round, rod-shaped and spiral--but as a class they are distinguished by their reproduction by fission--the full grown bacterium, except in a few cases, multiplying by dividing itself instead of producing others by budding (as yeasts) or by seeds or spores (as molds). They are universally recognized as of vegetable nature but some types are motile, the power of movement being often due to hair-like processes called flagella. They are so small that they are discernible only by microscopes of high power--even the width of the finest needle would, compared to a bacterium, look like the width of a man's thumb beside a speck of dust. They are as a class the most important both for good and evil, of all microbes, the most numerous, the most vigorous--and the most difficult to control, for where the conditions are favorable, millions can result within twenty-four hours from a single active specimen left undisturbed. They are present everywhere that life is found, and some of them are always at work in all kinds of moist food unless hermetically sealed or


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held at the freezing or boiling points. Freezing will stop their increase but only heat considerably above the boiling point, or long continued boiling, is a sure destroyer of all kinds.

Bacteria are found in great numbers also in various parts of the human body, but under normal conditions the presence there of some types is not only harmless, but absolutely necessary to health and life--for there are, from the human stand-point, both "good" and "bad" bacteria, and we need the former to counteract the latter.

In addition to their functions in the human body--which subject belongs rather in the province of the physician than the layman--and their value in the general economy of the universe--which is too wide a subject for discussion here--bacteria, properly controlled, are of great value in the production of many foods. Their presence in various articles assists digestion by the chemical changes effected and also by producing flavors which stimulate the proper secretion of the digestive fluids which are not excited by flavorless articles of diet.

Some varieties, for example, are almost indispensable adjuncts of butter and cheese making. The "ripening" of cream before churning, is merely waiting for chemical changes to be effected by the growth and increase in it of good bacteria. One thousand million of bacteria to the square inch is a conservative estimate for well ripened cream. Butter made from cream too fresh, and therefore deficient in bacterial life, is flavorless. This ripening of cream is not new--though the knowledge of the cause of the change is. Long before the presence and activity of bacteria were discovered, the butter maker used to set his cream aside and allow his unsuspected helpers to ripen it before he commenced churning. Another of the secrets of good butter making is though to know how far to let this change continue, for if overdone the cream is spoiled.

Many bacteriologists have made a study of the production of the best kind of bacteria for the use of butter-makers, and certain varieties can now be procured in open market under the name of "Pure-Cultures." These are used in much the same manner as yeast is used by bakers.

In the manufacture of cheese, bacteria play an even more important part--in fact, its manufacture without them is inconceivable, as the flavors for which cheeses are prized are directly attributable to bacterial agencies--though in some cases, as Brie, Camembert, Gorgonzola, Roquefort and Stilton, credit must also be given to the employment of special "mold" microbes. The production and sale of bacteria for cheese making has reached an active stage in Europe and it is only a question of time when it will be possible to set cultures for all the choicest imported cheeses at work in local American dairies.

Again, the only good table vinegar is the result of the activity of a species of acid-producing bacteria, and even the lactic bacterium, which incurs the enmity of the unthinking by "souring" the milk, is a very good friend--in this particular case the flavor of the milk is spoiled for many people, but the lactic acid formed makes it an especially health-giving drink and prevents for a time other noxious bacteria from rendering it dangerous by decomposition. Indeed, milk that has been "preserved" from souring by checking the formation of lactic acid may prove distinctly dangerous for consumption even though the fresh flavor is retained.

These instances give some idea of the good services rendered under certain conditions by many kinds of bacteria--and they are also indispensable to agriculture


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and other industries--but in the retailer's establishment and the household they are best regarded as enemies to be fought at every turn, for their uncontrolled access to fresh food is certain to result in loss and sometimes in danger to health. They are far more generally destructive than either wild yeast or molds. All real putrefaction is due to the action of bacteria--the breaking down of the structure of the food as they feed on certain elements in it and other changes caused by their growth and multiplication--and, as already stated, they are present everywhere, being especially plentiful in and around human habitations. Thoroughly dry, salted, smoked and (under certain conditions) spiced and pickled foods are safe from their depredations, but any fresh foods that contain from 25% to 30% moisture, except those that are very acrid or very heavily sugared, offer suitable soil for their growth and multiplication--if undisturbed, they rapidly take them through the various stages of putrefaction to the culminating point of decay.

Daylight, sunshine and cleanliness are opposed to bacteria, so stores and homes, and especially kitchens, should be blessed with all three as a preliminary safeguard. Next, fresh meats, canned goods (after opening) and similar foods should be eaten as fresh as possible. When immediate consumption is impossible, a good refrigerator offers a considerable measure of temporary protection, but it is only temporary, for the growth of some kinds of bacteria is checked by nothing short of freezing.

As already stated, boiling continued for an hour or so after the full heat has permeated every part of the food will kill all kinds of bacteria--will sterilize it--but this must be followed by immediate and hermetical sealing while still boiling hot, or new bacteria may get into it and start propagation afresh.

BAGS. Formerly the making of paper bags was one of the duties of the grocer's assistants, but they are now made more cheaply by machinery. Many manufacturers, desirous of advertising their wares, print paper bags and supply them to the trade at a nominal price, or give them with every sale of their own goods, but every good grocer can better afford to advertise his own store in that way, than to make the trifling saving.

Paper bags are made in a great variety of sizes and qualities. The present self-opening square bag was invented in 1883, following closely after the introduction of the satchel bottom bag. (See also PAPER and WAXED PAPER.)

BAKING. See sub-head in general article on COOKERY.

BAKING POWDER: a compound used in place of yeast, in which an acid acting upon an alkali generates carbon-dioxide (carbonic acid gas). As this action takes place as soon as the powder is moistened, the dough is made ready for baking more promptly than when yeast is used.

Practically all baking powders are composed of an acid, an alkali and a filler. The alkali is nearly always Bicarbonate of Sodium, and starch is generally employed as the filler, but there is a wide variation in the acid constituent used, and baking powders may be conveniently classed according to its nature. They may be recognized as follows:

(1) Tartrate Powders, in which the acid constituent is cream of tartar or tartaric acid:--Royal, Dr. Price's, Cleveland's, Sea Foam, etc.

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(2) Alum Powders, in which the acid constituent is generally a calcined double sulphate of aluminum and sodium:--Davis, Calumet, K. C., etc.

(3) Phosphate Powders, in which the acid constituent is acid calcium phosphate:--Horsford's, What, etc.

In the process of baking, the chemical constituents undergo certain changes, so that the residue in the finished bread is of somewhat different character from the original ingredients. That left in food, when cream of tartar powders are used, is rochelle salts; powders founded on phosphates leave calcium and sodium phosphates, and alum powders leave glauber's salt and a salt of aluminum. The quantity is, however, in each case very small.

The date when baking powder was first manufactured is involved in some doubt, but it is known that Preston & Merrill, of Boston, made it prior to 1855, the common name then being "yeast powder." Phosphate powders were invented by Professor E. N. Horsford, of Cambridge, Mass., in 1857, and their manufacture commenced soon thereafter by the Rumford Chemical Works, of Providence, R. I. Royal Baking Powder was first introduced in 1867 and Alum powders about the year 1875.

Grocers should not sell baking powders which do not give entire satisfaction, even if they are cheap and pay a good profit, because the loss resulting from a dissatisfied customer is likely to be much more than the profit on the baking powder. Private brands should be avoided because of the uncertainty as to their true character and legality under the Pure Food Laws. It is safest to buy only well known "regular" brands bearing the name of a responsible manufacturer.

Care should be taken to keep all baking powders in a dry place as they lose their strength if exposed to dampness.

BALM, Balm Mint, Lemon Balm. See GARDEN BALM.

BALYX, or Bailk: an European, originally Russian, term for salted or smoked Sturgeon.

BAMBOO SHOOTS: young shoots of the bamboo plant, eaten as a vegetable by the Chinese and one of the characteristic components of Chop Suey.

[Illustration: An illustration of the end of a banana branch which terminates in a flower.]

BANANAS. The banana, the most prolific fruit plant known, is a native of the East Indies but is now cultivated in all tropical countries. It is palm-like in appearance, but is in fact a large "plant," the thick, soft stem being formed by the overlapping of the long vertical leaf-stalks. This stem in the dwarf types is only about four feet in height, but in the most widely known varieties it reaches from twelve to twenty feet, up to even forty feet, with a diameter in the latter case of twelve to sixteen inches. The leaves spread out from the top of the sheath, each from six to ten feet in length by two feet or so in width.

The flowers, long and narrow, generally red, sometimes pink and yellow in color, are at first folded


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[Illustration: An illustration of a man sitting on a hill overlooking a river, on the other side of which lies a line of houses which are raised on stilts.]

close together to form a head at the end of a large drooping spike. Those at the point of the spike die unproductive, but the others, commencing from the stem side, rapidly change into fruit, layer by layer in circles around the stem, which steadily elongates so as to give each layer or "hand" plenty of room to develop--some branches containing as many as 160 fruits. A branch is known commercially as a "bunch"--the standard size being nine "hands" or "ridges," or "layers" to a stem, with from ten to fifteen bananas to a "hand." In Central America, the bunches often run a good deal larger.

Contrary to popular belief, bananas do not grow on the tree as they hang in the store, but with the small end of the fruit pointing upward.

After the fruit is taken, the plant is cut down--a new stalk growing up again and producing fruit in ten to twelve months. This course is repeated for about ten years, when the vigor of the plant generally decreases and it is replaced by a new cutting. For commercial purposes, the banana is cultivated with a good deal of care--it is set out in hills and rows very much like maize, except for the much larger distances separating the hills, and is carefully weeded and watched--but as a native food it needs very little attention, all that is necessary being to loosen the earth around the roots every season and to remove any suckers thrown up and plant them at requisite distances.

The yellow bananas are everywhere the most plentiful, but the red varieties are raised in considerable quantities in Cuba and Central America. Their respective merits are entirely a matter of individual opinion.

The "fig" or "lady-finger" banana, a very small, thin-skinned yellow variety, is the most esteemed in tropical countries--the flesh is finer and the flavor very soft and sweet.

Bananas are brought to our markets in a green state, coming chiefly from Jamaica and Central America. As they are easily frozen, they are in cold weather packed very carefully before shipping--but are always sent at the risk of the party ordering.

When received by the retailer or consumer in green condition, they should be kept in a moderately warm room or cellar until they begin to show color. Both cold and excessive heat will prevent them from maturing satisfactorily. When ripened, they are especially sensitive to low temperature and will readily deteriorate in any place where the thermometer registers below 50° Fahr. Placing in a refrigerator, or even laying on a cold marble slab, will turn them black and may spoil their flavor.

In selecting bunches, give the preference to those with stems still greenish in color and bearing fruit full and plump in appearance. If the fruit is thin or flat


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[Illustration: Two men stand next to a bent-over banana tree; one is chopping a bunch of bananas from the tree with a large knife. Two other men look on from further down the lane.]




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[Illustration: Two men standing next to a freight train work at passing bunches of bananas, which are piled alongside the train, to two other men inside an open car.]

looking, the bunch was probably cut too soon and in that case, though the fruit may ripen and become yellow, it will never attain the flavor and delicacy of that properly developed on the plant. Some varieties are naturally more or less "flat" in appearance even when fully developed, but as they are generally inferior in quality, it is safest for the average retailer to adhere to the rule to take only those "full and plump."

Properly selected and carefully ripened to a good deep yellow, the banana of the northwestern retailer is just as delicious as the fruit plucked from the plant in its tropical home.

The banana is in this country nearly always eaten raw, but in the West Indies and other tropical and sub-tropical parts it is also baked and otherwise cooked, both as a vegetable and dessert, made into flour for bread, dried black in the sun after the manner of figs, preserved with sugar and with vinegar, and pressed and fermented to yield a spirituous drink resembling cider.

The Plantain (which see) is of the banana family and the fruit resembles a yellow banana, but it is larger and coarser and suitable only for cooking.

BANANA EXTRACT. See general article on EXTRACTS.

BANNOCK: in Scotland and the northern counties of England, a flat round cake made of oat, rye or barley meal, baked on the hot hearth or on an iron plate over the fire. The bannock is the primitive cake, varied in material, of every country.

[Illustration: A line of people carry bunches of bananas across a bridge onto a steamer.]

For consumption in this country, bannocks are enriched by adding chopped almonds, orange peel, etc., to the dough.

BAOBAB, or Monkey Bread: the fruit of a low abnormally thick-trunked tree, native to Africa but grown also in India. It is generally oval in shape and about nine inches in length. It is downy in appearance, but under the down is a strong woody shell, enclosing a fibrous and farinaceous pulp of sub-acid flavor. The juice, slightly sweetened, is frequently used in the treatment of tropical fevers.

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[Illustration: A color illustration of a banana trees growing in the wild, accompanied by a cut showing a bunch of bananas and one single banana with its peel pulled back to show the interior of the fruit.]

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BARBADOS GOOSEBERRY: the edible fruit of the Pereskia Aculeata, a cactus found in the West Indies and distinguished as leaf-bearing in the ordinary sense of the word. It somewhat resembles the gooseberry in appearance, is generally yellow in color and of excellent flavor.

BARBERRY: the berry of a shrub of prickly character, growing from four to nine feet in height, which in various types is found wild in nearly every temperate country. In the United States, it is particularly abundant in New England.

The fruit, of bright red color, ripens in October and November. It is too acid to be generally acceptable for eating raw, but it makes excellent preserves, jams, etc., and as such is very wholesome.

[Illustration: An illustration of a branch covered with rounded leaves and laden with several bunches of berries toward one end.]

The young leaves are of a bitter but pleasing flavor and are sometimes used as a salad and for garnishing.

The famous French jam known as "Confiture d'épine vinette" is manufactured, principally in Rouen, from the Seedless Barberry.

Barberries are also used in France for the manufacture of malic acid. On analysis they show in addition a small percentage of citric acid.

BAR-LE-DUC "JELLY": preserves, originally of selected seeded whole white currants, but now also of strawberries, raspberries, etc., manufactured in the French town of Bar-le-duc. The popular term "Bar-le-duc jelly," is misleading as the typical product is a jam or preserve, the berries remaining intact in a thin syrup. The title "Lorraine Jelly" is sometimes used, as the city of Bar-le-duc lies within the boundaries of the former province of Lorraine.

BARLEY (see Color Page opposite 526): a grain grown in nearly every part of the world, which has apparently been cultivated from the most remote antiquity. The Books of Moses and the early Greek and Roman writers make many references to it. The Greeks are said to have trained their athletes on it and "barley wine" or "beer" was enjoyed at a very early date.

Barley grows very rapidly, in the northern United States maturing in about three months after seed sowing. The greater part of the crop is consumed in the form of malt and malt products--beer and kindred beverages, whisky, etc.

Medicinally, barley is rated as the mildest of the cereals. It contains less protein and carbohydrates but more fats and salts than wheat. In various forms it is especially valuable as a part of invalid dietaries.

Barley Meal: the whole grain ground, is the form in which barley is generally sold for the manufacture of beer, whisky and other liquors. In the northern parts of Europe large quantities are also employed in bread making.

Barley Malt. See MALT.

Pot, or "Starch," Barley: is the grain deprived of its outer husk.

Pearled Barley: is the grain with both the outer and inner husks removed, followed by a polishing process. It is entitled to place as a "cereal" food, but in the


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average American household it is used only in soup or in preparation of home remedies for colds, etc.

The largest consumption of Pearled Barley, including practically the entire output of the finer grades, is among Hebrews, who prepare it both as a breakfast food and a pudding.

Patent Barley: is a flour obtained by grinding Pearled Barley. It has none of the acrid taste found in barley meal ground with the husks.

BARLEY HONEY: is a Japanese product made from barley starch, generally in combination with rice flour.

BARM: foam taken from the surface of fermented malt liquors. It is commonly known as Brewers' Yeast. See YEAST.

BARREL. See tables of Weights and Measures in APPENDIX.

BARROW, or Push-cart: a small carriage moved by hand. It should be kept well painted and under cover. In purchasing, care should be taken that the load balances evenly on the axle.

BARTER: dealing by an exchange of goods. This was the original mode of dealing before the use of money and is still very common wherever money and banking facilities are scarce. The country dealer is often obliged to take eggs, butter, etc., as pay for sugar, starch and soap, and when he can move the produce quickly and well, and is not paying too much for it, the barter seems to give a double profit, because he makes something on the sale of the groceries and something on the sale of the produce. But it is often a great snare for the following reasons:

First, the produce may move slowly and so tie up capital, even if it does not result in loss by deterioration of quality.

Second, the belief that there is a double profit in barter, leads the dealer to pay a higher price for goods taken in trade. There is really no double profit. For keeping, handling and selling groceries, one profit is realized; for receiving, shipping and selling produce, another profit should be earned--and the dealer who performs both for a single profit, is doing half his work for nothing.

Third, it requires all the average man's judgment and ability to run a grocery properly, and those who try to combine with it the business of buying and shipping produce, and its freights, sales, drafts, returns and commissions, generally find out that they are not masters of both, but that one eats up the profits of the other.

Fourth, barter leads to a competition in buying which is worse than that which "cuts" in selling, for the dealer who cuts the prices of his groceries, generally stops before he gets to cost, because he knows just where that point is, but the buyer who competes on produce does not know the price at which the goods will sell in the city and is often easily led into paying more than he can realize after all the charges are paid.

No dealer can afford to do two transactions for one profit; few are capable of managing a double business, and when goods are sold below their value or bought above it; it is well to let others control the market.

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BASIL: a highly aromatic herb, with a flavor resembling cloves. The common variety is seldom made use of, but there is a large type whose leaves are employed very generally in flavoring sauces and soups, especially Green and Mock Turtle soup. Basil vinegar is made by steeping the leaves in vinegar.

[Illustration: A stem of a plant with three branches, each of which terminates in a cone of tiny flowers.]

BASS: a well shaped, round and fleshy fish, of which there are three chief food varieties--the Striped, Sea and Black (or Fresh Water or Lake). The first two are found all along the Atlantic coast. The Striped Bass ranges in weight from half a pound to seventy-five pounds for some huge specimens and is in season all the year round. The Sea Bass averages from a half pound to five pounds and is in season from the middle of May to the end of December. The Black Bass averages about the same weight as the Sea Bass and is in season from June to December--its two principal types are the "Big Mouth" and "Small Mouth," the latter being considered the better. See illustrations of Striped Bass and Sea Bass in Color Page opposite 240.

BATH BRICK, or Bristol Brick: a dry brick used to polish steel knives and other cutlery, originally made from deposits of fine silicious sand found near Bath, England, but later made also at Bristol, England, and at South Hampton, N. H.

BATH BUN: a kind of light, sweet roll, generally round in shape and usually containing currants, etc. It takes its name from Bath, England, the city of its origin.

BAY LEAVES: the leaves of a shrub of the laurel variety, growing wild in Greece, Italy and other Mediterranean countries and in some Southern sections of the United States.

Among the ancient Greeks, the Bay Leaf was in large part dedicated to heroism and poetry, but modern usage consecrates it to the more material pleasures of the table. The principal consumption is of the dried leaf, used as flavoring for soups, etc.

BAY RUM: a liquor obtained by distilling Bay Leaves in rum, used as a perfume and hair tonic. It is generally imported from the West Indies. Imitations are plentiful, but very inferior in fragrance.

BEAD: the tiny, iridescent bubbles which, on agitation, form on the surface of some alcoholic liquors.

BEADING: any substance added to spirits to make them carry a "Bead," and to cling in drops on the sides of the bottle or glass.

BEAN: a vegetable which appears to have been cultivated long before the commencement of recorded history and in one variety or another to flourish in every part of the world. It was well known to the ancient Egyptians and Grecians--and when the first voyagers reached the Western continent they found that here also the growing of beans, and peas, had apparently always been a common industry among


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the natives--their preparation of beans and corn is perpetuated in "succotash."

The bean of European history is the Broad or Windsor variety, with broad curved pods, containing thick bulging seeds of distinct and agreeable flavor. It is largely grown in Europe and Canada but is not an important crop in the United States as the climate is not suitable for its best growth.

[Illustration: A short section of beanstalk laden with four bean pods.]

The principal beans of United States cultivation are the Kidney and Lima, both of them believed to be native to South America.

The Kidney Bean is the Haricot of the French and in Great Britain is sometimes called the French Bean. There are a great many varieties, capable of general classification into "tough podded" and "edible podded."

The "tough podded" class produces the bulk of the dried beans of commerce, variously known as "Kidney Beans," "Navy Beans," "Marrow Beans," "Black Beans," etc., in many colors, shapes and sizes. "Black" or "Turtle" Beans, grown chiefly in the Southern States, make an especially rich and excellent soup. Some varieties, as "Flageolets," are cultivated with special regard to the consumption of the fresh seeds or beans.

To the "edible-podded" class belong the numerous types of "Wax" or "Butter" beans, eaten fresh at all stages of development. The "Cranberry Bean" or "Red Speckled Bean," both shell and beans spotted or otherwise marked with red, is a variety cultivated principally in New England and popular there for making succotash.

String Beans, Snap Beans, French Beans are immature pods of numerous kinds of Kidney beans. The best have little or no "string." They should be so young that the seeds are barely visible and should be marketed as quickly as possible after gathering. In buying, see that they are crisp and tender when broken--toughness or limpness is a sign of too great age or overlong keeping.

[Illustration: An illustration of long beans on a stem in front of some broad leaves.]

String beans are kept for winter use by salting, both for home use and retailing. They are a popular winter vegetable among Germans. Before cooking, they are soaked in water over night to remove the salt.

Canned String Beans, described for quality as "Stringless," "Fancy," etc., are graded by size as "extra small," "small," etc. "Haricots Verts" are French string beans.

Lima Beans are flat, slightly kidney-shaped, and generally wrinkled or fluted. They are very popular, both fresh and dried, the green seeded types being considered the choicest. When dried, they serve as an agreeable winter food, soaked before cooking.

[Illustration: An illustration of two bean pods, which have been split open.]

Pea Beans are the Cowpeas of the agriculturist, but they belong to the bean family in spite of that title. They are grown in many varieties, bearing seeds of different styles and colors. Their principal use is as a forage plant and soil fertilizer, but considerable quantities are dried for winter use. They are cooked like other dried beans and have a very pleasing flavor.

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[Illustration: A color illustration of four similarly-shaped cuts of meat, each labeled with a number.]

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Among numerous other "special" varieties are the Soy Bean (which see), Asparagus Bean, Frijole, Lab-lab, Red Bean and Scarlet Runner.

Asparagus Beans take their name from the great length of their pods, which average twelve inches or more in length and in some varieties even exceed a length of three feet. By Chinese gardeners in California they are known as "Tou Kok." The seeds are small but the green pods make an excellent "Snap" bean. They are used only to a limited extent in the United States, principally by the Chinese and other residents of Oriental birth or extraction, but they are beginning to find favor also among the white residents of California. They have long been cultivated in Europe.

Frijole Beans are a small flat variety, generally of a reddish brown or light tan color, very common, both "green" and dried, in the Southwest and Mexico.

Lab-lab, or Egyptian Kidney, beans are frequently grown as an ornamental plant but they are very productive and under proper cultivation can be used both as String and Dried beans.

Red Beans are grown principally in the tropics. They are less liable to cause intestinal irritation than the ordinary bean, but they are difficult to transport because of their tender skins.

The Scarlet Runner is also cultivated here principally as an ornamental climber, but it is consumed in large quantities in Europe, especially in England, both as a string and green shell bean.

Selecting and cooking dried beans. Well dried, mature beans are smooth and shiny. If there are folds in the skins, it generally signifies poor drying or inferior quality. They should also be of uniform size and appearance. The most important qualification is that they should cook soft. The size is chiefly a matter of taste and the color, other things being equal, is unimportant. The prejudice against beans that grow dark in cooking is unfortunate as many of them are of fine quality and flavor and frequently more tender than the very white.

[Illustration: A woman sits in the rows of a field, holding a large basket full of beans. The silhouettes of several other workers can be seen in the backround.]

The first step in household cooking is the swelling of the bean and softening of the skin by soaking in cold water for generally not less than eight hours. Some cooks cover with hot water so as to shorten the time but the cold water method is preferable. The large Lima Beans after soaking may be easily slipped out of their skins by sieving or stirring in water, the skins rising to the top and being then skimmed off. After this process, beans can be boiled and served in many ways, whole, mashed as "bean pudding," in soup making, etc.

Beans, as also peas, are exceptionally rich in food value. Even when immature or "green" they are much more nutritious than other vegetables of popular use, and


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when ripe or "dry" they excel nearly all other foods--both animal and vegetable. They average at least as much protein as meat and nearly as much carbohydrates as wheat. The only lack is in the fat component. See FOOD VALUES.

BEAN FLOUR: pulverized dried or ripe beans. Used in the same way as Pea Flour (which see).

BEAR-LITHIA. See general article on table and medicinal MINERAL WATERS.

BEATEN BISCUIT, or "Maryland Biscuit": a kind of bread biscuit made without leavening. The folding and pounding of the dough encloses small quantities of air in minute blisters and these expanding in baking make the biscuit light and porous.

BECCAFICO, or "Fig-Pecker": a name given to numerous small birds, popularly supposed to live on figs, highly esteemed for the table in Southern Europe.

BEECHNUT: the seed of the beech-tree, one of the most beautiful members of the oak family, found in numerous varieties in this country and in Europe. The nuts--sharp-edged and triangular in shape--grow in pairs in a rather prickly scaly burr. The kernels are very tender and sweet flavored. See also NUTS (Food Values).

BEE GLUE, or Propolis: a kind of glue which bees use to close up cracks, especially any cracks that admit cold. They sometimes daub it on combs, often spoiling the appearance and ruining the sale of otherwise nice comb honey.

BEEF: is the most important of meats, the chief staple of the butcher and the leading food article in the average household.

It is a curious and in some respects an unfortunate fact that in different parts of the country there are many names for the same "cut," but Diagrams I and II on page 57, adapted from a recent Bulletin of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, illustrate a very widely accepted division of a whole beef and show the relative positions of the cuts in the animal and in a dressed side.

The Neck Piece is frequently cut so as to include more of the Chuck than is represented by the diagram.

The Shoulder Clod is usually cut without bone. The Shoulder (not indicated in the diagram) includes more or less of the shoulder blade and of the upper end of the Foreshank. Shoulder Steak is cut from the Chuck.

In many localities, the Plate is made to include all the parts of the forequarters designated on the diagrams as Brisket, Cross-ribs, Plate and Navel, and different portions of the Plate as thus cut are spoken of as the "brisket end of plate" and "navel end of plate." This part of the animal is largely used for corning.

The Ribs are frequently divided into "first" cut, the first three ribs constituting the choicest "prime" ribs of beef, "second" cut and "third" cut, the last-named lying nearest the Chuck and being slightly less desirable than the former.

The Chuck is sometimes sub-divided in a similar manner, the third cut being nearest the neck.

The names applied to different portions of the Loin vary considerably in different localities. With the Hip it is generally known as "hip-loin." The part nearest the


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[Illustration: A color illustration of two large cuts of meat. Each cut has its own caption.]




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[Illustration: An illustration of a bull whose body is divided into sections and labeled with the numbers 1-15, flanked by a diagram showing only the body of a cow without head or legs, also divided into sections and labeled with numbers.]




[Illustration: A diagram of the body of a cow without head or legs, divided into sections and labeled with the numbers 1-12.]




[Illustration: Two diagrams of the body of a cow without head or legs, divided into sections and labeled with numbers.]




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ribs is frequently called "small end of loin" or "small end sirloin" or "short steak." The other end of the loin is called "thick end sirloin" or "sirloin." Porter-house steaks are cut from the "thick end." The very tender strip of meat known as the "tenderloin" lies under or inside the hip-loin, being thickest at the hip part and gradually tapering off to a very narrow piece at the "small end."

It is not uncommon to find the Flank cut so as to include more of the loin than is indicated in the figures, in which case the upper portion is called "flank-steak." The larger part of the flank is frequently corned, as is also the case with the Rump.

In some markets, the Rump is cut so as to include a portion of the loin, which is then sold as "rump steak."

The portion of the Round on the inside of the leg is regarded as more tender than that on the outside, and is consequently preferred to the latter. As the leg lies upon the butcher's table this inside of the round is usually on the upper, or top, side, and is therefore called "top round."

The lower diagrams, (III, IV) show two other standard divisions--No. III, a method widely accepted by Chicago and Kansas City wholesale butchers, and Nos. IV and V a popular New York wholesale division.

The following table explains the separation shown on illustrations Nos. IV and V.

HINDQUARTERS 1, 2, 3, 4, 5	{	Full Round 1, 2, 3	{	1--Leg or Shin.
	{		{	2--Round: divided into Top, Bottom and Leg Bone.
	{		{	3--Flank: of mixed fat and lean, containing Flank Steak nested in "cod" fat.
	{	"Full" or "hip and," Loin 4, 5	{	Short Loin: including Sirloin and, on under-side, part of Filet or Tenerloin.
	{	{	Full Hip: divided into Short Hip (containing the large end of Filet) and Top Sirloin (or "Butt").
FOREQUARTERS 6, 7, 8	{	6--Plate*: divided into (a) Plate End, (b) Navel End, and (c) Breast or Brisket (together with part of 9).
	{	7--S-Rib Cut*: divided into 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7-Rib pieces and "Chuck End" with remaining ribs.
	{	8--Whole, or "Full" Chuck: divided into (a) Short Chuck, and (b) Shoulder and Breast or Brisket.

* An 8-Rib Cut and the Plate together are known as a "Piece."

Every normal steer has thirteen ribs. The general eastern rib cut gives eight ribs, an "S-rib roast"--one rib remaining on the hindquarters and four on the chuck--but this division is subject to wide variations at the wish of the purchasing retailer.

See also the four Color Pages of Rib Cuts, Sirloin Cuts, Steaks, etc.--alternate leaves commencing with that opposite page 50.

The best beef is that of a young stall-fed, corn-fed steer. It should be of fine, smooth texture and bright fresh red color intermixed with fine streaks of white fat. It should retain the impression of the finger after it is removed--this is important, as old or tough beef is elastic to the touch. Meat that is pale or deep purple in color, that is wet and flabby, or has a sickly smell, should be carefully avoided.

If the fat (of a healthy specimen) is yellow, the beef may still be of good quality--it is not from a stall-fed animal, but it may be a fine grass-fed specimen matured under specially favorable conditions--but if, as is generally the case, the fat is yellow from oil-cake feeding it has been obtained at the expense of the best flavor of the meat.

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[Illustration: A color illustration of three different cuts of meat, each with its own caption.]

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Cow beef and bull beef are also sold, but they are, at the general age of slaughtering, not in any way comparable to steer beef in quality. Cow beef is a darker red than steer beef. When young it may be more tender than steer, but it is seldom if ever as juicy or fine flavored.

"Boneless cuts" of beef are supplied to retailers throughout the country by several big packing houses. They include tenderloins, sirloin strips, sirloin butts, rib-beef rolls, loin backs, clods, etc. They are especially convenient and easy for the inexperienced butcher to handle and cut up, but some judges assert that, shipped in that manner, the meat deteriorates in flavor as the result of the loss of blood and extractives.

Beef to be at its best should always be aged. To age it properly, a good refrigerator is, of course, indispensable. The temperature should be about 33° to 35° Fahr., and the atmosphere dry--the dryer the better. In cold dry air, beef will ripen and sweeten and may safely be held a long time, whereas, in a warm, moist atmosphere it will become sticky and sour in a comparatively short time. It is important that the temperature should be uniform and not allowed to rise and fall.

One cannot dwell too emphatically on the importance of the proper aging of beef, for cooked fresh beef, even if cut from young animals, is certain to be tough, whereas beef properly aged will be more or less tender, even if cut from animals conspicuous for the number of their years. "Light" or very lean carcases are not though suitable for aging, as the fibre is liable to deteriorate during the process.

Beef is generally acknowledged to be the best flesh-former of all modern foods, as in addition to an average of about 15% to 20% of protein it contains a considerable proportion of fat in an easily digestible form. A diet very largely of meat is not, though, desirable for the average person of sedentary occupation (see FOOD VALUES).

When heads of families realize that there are many cuts of beef equally as nutritious as the sirloin, porterhouse steak and standing rib roast, which can, with very little extra trouble, be served in forms just as palatable and inviting, they will find a wonderful difference in their expenditures for meats. Further, such a revolution in ideas would inevitably result in lower prices for the "choice cuts" also--it is only natural that high prices prevail for them now as the general public thinks that there are only three or four pieces of an entire beef that are fit for the table and all other parts have to be sacrificed at extremely low figures, or utilized by packers for their canned products.

In broiling or frying a steak, the most important point is to put it over a quick fire and expose it on each side for about a minute so as to seal the juices in the meat--then proceed in the ordinary way to finish the cooking.

Similarly, in "roasting" meat, have the oven hot, so that the outside is quickly cooked, to seal the juices inside.

The average American doesn't care much for boiled fresh beef, yet, properly prepared, it is just as palatable as steak. The best cuts for this purpose are the brisket, cross-ribs and rump--the rump is especially suitable for those who prefer lean boiled meat. The principal points to be observed in cooking are: (1) tie the meat up to preserve its shape, (2) put into boiling water, (3) add salt, etc., and plenty of vegetables, (4) simmer gently until done--don't let it boil and bubble away, and don't overcook it or reduce it to rags.

American prime beef has earned the reputation--abroad as well as at home--of being equal to the world's best anywhere. This is the result of the improvements during recent years in breeding, feeding and shipping. The old-time long-horned Texas


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steer, formerly the accepted American type, is obsolete as the result of crossing with high class imported stock and selection of the best grades has been brought to a very fine point; range feeding exclusively has been succeeded by grain feeding scientifically controlled for a considerable time prior to slaughtering, and modern methods of transportation have done away with the necessity for freezing shipments.

Americans are, by the way, the greatest meat eaters in the world. The average consumption per capita here is 175 pounds per annum--and of this by far the greatest percentage is of beef in one form or another. English people average 110 pounds per capita, the French eat only half as much as the English, and the people of Germany, Austria and Italy consume still less.

See also BRAINS, HEART, KIDNEYS, LIVER, SAUSAGE, SWEETBREAD, TONGUE, TRIPE, ETC., and general article on MEATS.

Beef à la Mode. See BRAISED BEEF.

Beef Bread: the pancreas, frequently retailed as SWEETBREAD (which see).

Beef Extract: See MEAT EXTRACT.

BEEFSTEAK MUSHROOM: one of the best known TREE MUSHROOMS (which see).

BEER. The word "beer" as now used applies to all undistilled fermented malt liquors excepting those which travel under the special classifications of ale and porter or stout. Its principal constituents are prepared barley, called "malt" (which see) and hops with corn or rice, or both, added in varying proportions. Its flavor and quality depend not only on good materials and correct brewing, but also on the natural characteristics of the water employed--which explains the fact that, with all other conditions equal, some parts of the country enjoy a higher reputation for their beer than others are able to attain.

The history of beer proper dates from the thirteenth century, but its predecessor "barley wine" was drunk in Egypt at least four thousand years ago. Herodotus describes barley wine as made from barley malt, the principal ingredient of modern beer, and history tells that the Romans and later the early Britons, Danes and Germans practiced the part of brewing it and consumed it in large quantities.

In this country, in the early colonial days, every man was his own brewer. This statement is meant literally, for home beer brewing was as much a part of the housewife's duties as the making of fruit preserves. The local government encouraged however the establishment of public breweries and, their product supplementing the increase in the quantity of imported beers as ocean traffic developed, the result was that in time the custom of home brewing died out as unnecessary.

The beers brewed then--and for many succeeding generations--were all of the English style--ale, porter etc.,--much heavier in alcohol than the product we know, darker in color, and more or less "muddy" in appearance. The greater percentage of alcohol was required to keep the liquor in good condition as brewing had not reached the scientific perfection of to-day.

The English style of beers continued in universal use until the introduction of "lager beer" from Germany in the early half of the 19th century. The lighter beverage met with almost instant favor and in a few years the demand for it had revolutionized the brewing industry. Under different titles and brands it constitutes by far the greater part of the beer now consumed in this country.

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[Illustration: A color illustration of four cuts of meat, each labeled with a number.]

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Formerly, beer was manufactured almost exclusively of barley malt and hops, and some varieties of both imported and domestic are still so brewed, but the addition of either rice or corn (or both) has become very general for several reasons--principally because of the preference of the general public for a very brilliant, sparkling brew and because of the high prices and limited quantity of high class barley malt produced. To these reasons may be added the fact that much even of high grade American malt contains too many insoluble albuminoids which tend to make the beer cloudy.

The average proportion is 70% malt and 30% rice or corn, or 30% of corn and rice mixed. The rice is, perhaps, preferable to corn as giving a finer, cleaner taste, because of the absence of vegetable oil. The difference is, though, slight as very little oil is left in the corn after preparation.

Only No. 1 white flint corn and fine ground imported Burma rice are used in high grade breweries.

The preparation of the barley malt and the grinding of the corn (to a very fine hominy) are now frequently businesses separate from brewing, because of the magnitude of preparation, separating, cleansing, etc.

The first stages in brewing itself are the crushing of the malt and the prolonged boiling of the ground rice or corn.

The crushed malt is run into the mash "tun" or tank and mixed with warm water. Then the rice and corn, still at the boiling point, are added to it, the diastase of the malt converting the starches of the grain into "sugar" (maltose and dextrin).

The "wort," as the liquid product is then called, is next run off through a filtering apparatus into covered steam-jacketed copper boilers and there boiled, by steam pipes connection, for two or three hours. The hops, in the proportion of about one pound to a barrel, are added to the liquid as soon as it commences to boil. The liquid is next pumped through a hop strainer into the cooling tanks and thence as rapidly as possible through coils of cooling pipes into the ferment tanks. Here yeast is added and fermentation takes place. On the judgment and experience displayed in the preparation and handling of the yeast depends largely the success of the brew.

From the fermenting house the beer goes to the "resting" or aging tanks. The next move, after a rest of generally three months or longer, is the finishing tank, where the finished product is "carbonated" either by the addition of carbon-dioxide taken from the fermenting tanks or of a small quantity of new beer just starting to ferment. Either process furnishes the "sparkle" and effervescence which give beer its attractive appearance. Finally comes the filtering and running into kegs or bottles.

It is the boiling process which chiefly distinguishes beer as we know it from the ancient "barley wine." The boiling preserves the product by the elimination of the albuminoids, etc., and gives it both better appearance and flavor. The hops tend to give the desired bitter and aromatic taste. Bottled beer is further preserved by pasteurization.

The difference in the color of beers is attributable sometimes to local differences in the method of brewing, but more often to the quantity of malt used. As a general thing, a greater percentage of malt tends to make a beer darker and a greater percentage of rice to make it lighter in color. Slight variations may also be due to the difference between light and dark malt, and an especially dark color may be attributable to the addition of 5% to 8% of caramel malt to a dark malt.

The difference between "heavy" and "light" beer in composition, irrespective of color, is generally attributable to the temperature at which the "wort" is made. The


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average is 150° to 160° Fahr., the result of adding the boiling grain to the warm, but not boiling, malt mash. A higher temperature produces less sugar and leaves a larger percentage of unconverted grain extracts in the wort--and in consequence the completed beer will be heavy in body or extract but of a low alcohol percentage. A good example of a beer rich in extracts is the dark Bavarian. Of opposite character is the Pilsner kind--which is light in composition, almost free from extracts, but of a much higher percentage of alcohol.

"Brewer's Sugar" or "Commercial Dextrose," a form of glucose, is frequently used in place of part of the usual malt addition, principally from motives of economy when malt is high in price but also because it contains less nitrogenous matter and thus tends to make a clearer brighter brew. The chemical components are closely allied--malt under the action of diastase produces dextrin and maltose, and Brewer's Sugar contains dextrin, maltose and dextrose.

American beer closely resembles the German in composition but it averages a little lighter in alcohol--varying in the ordinary varieties from 3% to 4%, going though in some cases as high as 7%. Some connoisseurs assert that the finest German beers excel any produced in this country, but it may be safely asserted that the average of the products of American breweries is fully equal to the average of those of any country without any exception whatever.

The title "lager beer" signifies "store house beer," or beer laid by and stored for some months before use.

Lager beer is distinguished in brewing by being fermented at a much lower temperature than ales. On this account it was formerly made only during the winter months, but the extension of refrigerating facilities in recent years has made its manufacture possible all the year round.

Malt Beer is made solely of barley malt and hops.

Bock Beer is an especially strong variety of German origin but now thoroughly localized here. It is darker in color, less bitter in flavor and stronger in alcohol. It is generally brewed in the winter from the first of the new crop of hops and malt and drunk in the spring.

The goat which is usually associated with "Bock Beer" is attributable to a general misunderstanding concerning the origin of the title. "Bock" means "goat," but the name "Bock Beer" was taken from "Eimbock," the former name of Eimbeck, a Prussian city famous for its breweries during the time of the Reformation.

Stock Beer and Winter Beer are, practically, equivalents of Lager Beer.

Black Beer or Dantzig Beer is a very dark, syrupy brew first made in Dantzig.

Bitter Beer is a name occasionally applied to ALE (which see).

The most noteworthy "temperance" beers which resemble genuine beer in flavor and appearance but which show less than 1% alcoholic component are made in about the same manner and with practically the same ingredients as lager beer, the alcohol being afterwards removed by re-boiling the finished product.

BEESWAX: is the fatty substance secreted by bees in making combs for the deposit of honey. The commercial product is the comb refined, bleached, etc., after the extraction of the honey. It is used in the making of fine candles and tapers, for honeycomb foundation (see HONEY), etc. See also WAX.

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BEESWING: a second or pseudo-crust much admired in port and a few other wines, and which forms in them only when kept for some time after the first or true crust has formed. It consists of minute, glittering, floating particles of tartar, purer and freer from astringent matter than that deposited in the first crust.

BEET: after the potato, one of the most important food roots. The small delicate varieties are popular as a table vegetable, both fresh cooked and pickled; the Sugar Beet furnishes nearly half of the world's sugar supply and large quantities of alcohol, and the Mangels and other coarser types are valuable as cattle food.

For use as a vegetable, beets are generally boiled but some people prefer baking, which gives a deeper color and retains more of the natural juices. The red fleshed kinds are most popular for table purposes but there are several yellow-flesh types which are very fine in flavor and especially sugary to the taste.

Several varieties of beet are grown exclusively for their tops or leaves, the most important of them being Chard (which see), the White or Sicilian beet and the Sea beet.

If stored in cellars, beets should be covered with sand or soil to prevent shriveling.

[Illustration: An illustration of a round beet with its leaves still attached.]

BéNéDICTINE: one of the most ancient of liqueurs in present use, having been continuously made since 665 A.D. It was originally prepared at the Bénédictine monastery at Fécamp, Normandy, but since the French Revolution of 1792 it has been made by a commercial company. It is flavored with a great variety of herbs, seeds, etc. See Color Page of LIQUEURS.

BENGAL QUINCE or Elephant Apple: an Indian fruit of the citrus family, with smooth yellow rind and pulpy flesh of excellent flavor. A yellow dye is sometimes made from the rind, and the roots, bark and unripe fruit are locally used for medicinal purposes.

BENZINE: a light oil of petroleum, used in the household for removing grease spots from clothes, etc. It takes the spot out by dissolving the grease. Commercially, it is also employed to dissolve caoutchouc, gutta-percha, wax, camphor, etc. It is very inflammable and all insurance requirements concerning it should be carefully complied with. The title "Benzine" should not be confused with "Benzene," more correctly called Benzol, a very different article, obtained from coal tar.

BENZOATE OF SODA, Sodium Benzoate: a salt made by adding benzoic acid to a hot solution of carbonate of sodium--the sodium benzoate appears on cooling in the form of crystals. Commercially, it is a white powder, slightly sweet and astringent in flavor. It is used to a considerable extent as a food preservative (see PRESERVATIVES).

Commercial Benzoic acid is manufactured chiefly from coal tar and by synthesis, also to a certain extent from rosins, especially that of the Tolu and other South American trees and Benzoin, exuded from the bark of an East Indian tree. It is found naturally in cranberries and some other fruits.

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BERGAMOT, Bergamot Orange, or Mellarosa: a citrus fruit which may be classed as between an orange and lemon, cultivated principally in the South of Europe. It is generally somewhat pear-shaped, with thin, smooth peel, lemon-yellow in color and very aromatic, and greenish, sub-acid and fragrant pulp. The oil obtained from the rind is used in flavoring liqueurs and in perfumery.

BERGAMOT (HERB): a title frequently applied to a family of several different plants used as herbs for their stimulating and aromatic properties, as "Wild Bergamot," "American Horse Mint," etc.

BERGAMOT PEAR: in Europe, the popular name for several choice types of pears.

BERRIES: should be kept in a cool dry place. Dryness is absolutely essential. Moisture, even in a cool atmosphere, will rapidly spoil them as it conduces to the growth of mold--and when berries have begun to mold, it is almost impossible to save them.

It is much better to show berries in the window, if protected from the sun, or on a display table in the store, than outside in the street where they are reasonably sure to collect a fine assortment of grit and dirt. Some grocers have become so enlightened that even inside the store they show only a few boxes at a time--just enough to attract attention. The remainder are kept in the cellar or refrigerator until they are needed.

As berries require very careful handling to wash them without spoiling their appearance or flavor, the best advice is to exercise care in purchasing--avoiding those which are too soft or which show sand, etc. Only fresh clean berries should be eaten raw--others are better cooked.

See also BLACKBERRIES, STRAWBERRIES, etc., and Color Page of BERRIES.

BETEL NUT: the fruit of a palm cultivated in tropical Asia, noted for its narcotic and intoxicating properties.

BETHESDA. See general article on table and medicinal MINERAL WATERS.

BIFFINS: a special kind of dried apple, flat in appearance and soft to the touch, prepared in large quantities in Norfolk, England. They are obtained by a very slow drying of the fruit and occasional pressing.

BIGARADE or Seville Orange: the type chiefly used for preserving, etc. See ORANGES.

BILBERRY. See HUCKLEBERRIES. Also in some sections applied to the JUNE BERRY.

BILTONG: a South African term for strips of the sun-dried meat of antelope, etc.

BIN: a large wooden box or chest with a lid, used for corn, flour, sugar, etc. Also, a compartment in a wine cellar.

BIRCH BEER: a summer beverage made from the fermented sap of the birch. The sap is secured by "tapping" in the spring, a large tree often giving from four to six quarts in a single day. If the holes are properly closed after use, the trees may be tapped every year without injury.

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[Illustration: A color illustration of a variety of berries, each pictured with a few leaves and occasionally a blossom of the plant on which it grows.]

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BIRCH SUGAR: the evaporated sap of the birch tree, produced in very much the same way as Maple Sugar (which see).

BIRDS'-NEST SOUP: a famous Oriental soup made from the gelatinous, mucous substance with which several varieties of Swifts form the lower portion of their nests, building them bracket-fashion on the faces of cliffs. Kanten (which see), or Vegetable Isinglass, is frequently used as a substitute for Birds'-nests.

BISCUITS or Crackers: are made nowadays in great variety and, in the majority of cases, of uniform excellence of flavor and ingredients. The result of the improvement in the domestic product during the last few years has been a noteworthy increase in consumption. The American appetite for biscuits is, however, still a long way behind that of some other countries--our annual per capita expenditure is only forty cents for biscuits of all kinds as against nearly three dollars in Canada and a full four dollars in England.

The title "biscuit" is a combination of two French words which mean "twice cooked." In their original manufacture, "biscuits" underwent two separate bakings, the second to evaporate the moisture held over from the first.

Enormous quantities of honey are used in the baking of the modern Sweet Biscuit as it helps to keep the product fresher and softer than when sugar is employed.

The retailer is advised to buy in small lots so as to be sure that his stock is always fresh, and to lay in only those varieties for which there is a reasonably steady demand in his particular neighborhood.

Hard, sweet biscuits are the best keepers.

Excessive paleness is generally considered a defect as it is usually attributable to age or poor baking.

Both retailer and consumer should see that crackers are kept in a warm, dry place--dampness will quickly spoil them. If moisture has deprived them of crispness, they can often be improved by putting in a hot oven for a few minutes.

Bulk crackers should always be kept in boxes as nearly air-tight as possible--those with glass fronts or tops combining display and a fair measure of protection.

"Package" crackers are always preferable to the bulk kind, for the latter can scarcely fail to suffer to some extent from exposure to atmospheric changes and to dust, flies and other nuisances.

BISQUE: "cream" soup of Shellfish. See general article on SOUPS.

BITTERS: spirits in which bitter roots or herbs have been steeped. Medicinally, they are divided into "Simple Bitters," including such remedies as Dogwood, Gentian and Quassia, which by their peculiar bitterness serve as a stimulant to appetite and digestion; "Aromatic Bitters," including Virginia Snake Root and Wild Cherry Bark, which contain an aromatic principle and are more or less astringent, and "Special Bitters" whose main principle is usually Cinchona, the source of quinine, and its several preparations--in small doses acting as "Simple Bitters" and in larger as a remedy for malarial affections. "Cascarilla" is the Spanish and South American name for Cinchona and "Calisaya" is one of the best known varieties.

Commercially, Bitters are widely used in this country as an appetizer, with other spirits and water, or with syrup and soda, etc.; in the making of cocktails and various


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other "mixed drinks." They are known by special trade names, taken generally from the constituent herb or bark, the place of production or the name of the manufacturers.

BIVALVE. As applied to foods, the term "bivalve" refers to shellfish having two shells joined by an elastic ligament which permits the shells opening (somewhat like the covers of a book--but not to an equal extent) and closing--as oysters, clams, etc.

BLACK ASH: evaporated from the waste lyes of soap making and used in the manufacture of alum and common soap.

BLACKBERRY: the fruit of a bushy rambler, growing wild in the woods and fields, which is sold in large quantities in the early summer months. Cultivation has greatly improved its size and quality in recent years and has extended its fruiting season to the end of September. In addition to its consumption as a fresh fruit, large quantities are used in cooking, made into jelly and jam, blackberry cordial, etc.

Dried blackberries, principally from the South, are wild berries dried in the sun. The quality is generally poor.

The Dewberry is a fruit of the same species, but rather smaller, rounder and more juicy. It grows on a low, creeping bramble, and ripens several weeks before the blackberry proper.

BLACKBERRY BRANDY: is boiled blackberry juice with medicinal spices added and fortified with sufficient brandy to prevent fermentation. It is much used in summer complaints.

BLACKBIRD: originally, the name of a distinct variety of birds, but in this country freely applied in many sections to several birds widely different in family but alike in their black plumage. The only kind that can legally be sold as a game bird is that known as the "Crow Blackbird," which is considered excellent by many lovers of bird meat. Blackbirds were at one time highly esteemed as a food delicacy in England--an historical item that has been perpetuated in the nursery rhyme concerning the "pie" containing "four and twenty blackbirds" which was "set before the king!"

BLACKFISH or Tautog: a North Atlantic fish in season from April to October. It varies in weight from one to fourteen pounds, large specimens measuring as long as thirty inches--these big fish being though very scarce. Its skin is tough and black like an eel's but the flesh is white, tender and of fine flavor.

[Illustration: An illustration of a fish with a spiky dorsal fin and a striped body.]

BLACKING. The principal ingredients of common blacking are bone black, oil, molasses and a little sulphuric acid. There is also a higher grade of blacking in which wax is used instead of molasses. This produces a softer and more durable polish and excludes moisture better than the ordinary article. Blacking should be kept in a dry, cool place.

BLACKSTRAP. See reference in article under heading of MOLASSES.

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BLANC-MANGE (from the French blanc-manger, "white eating"): correctly, a pudding or jelly made of isinglass, gelatine, calves' foot jelly, etc., and milk. Ground rice, arrowroot, cornstarch, etc., are, however, frequently substituted. Transparent Blanc-Mange, the title then being a misnomer, is a clear, flavored jelly.

BLANCHING: whitening or making white.

In cookery, mushrooms, artichoke bottoms, etc., are "blanched" in water prepared by adding a little lemon, butter and salt and bringing to a boil. The term is also sometimes, but incorrectly, applied in a culinary sense to Parboiling (which see in article on COOKERY).

In agriculture, the stalks of celery, asparagus, etc., are "blanched" by banking earth or putting planks, etc., around them while growing, to keep the sun off and thus prevent them attaining a green color.

BLANQUETTE: a delicate white wine. A special variety of large pear. The French name for white-bait. In cookery, a stew with white sauce.

BLET: a form of decay showing first as rotting spots in fruit such as apples, etc.

BLETTING: a term applied to the change which takes place in hard, sour apples and similar fruits after they have been stored for a considerable time. The first effects are to improve the fruit by making the flesh softer and sweeter, but continued too long the change results eventually in decay.

BLIMBLING: a fruit similar to the Carambola (which see) but generally more acid.

BLOATERS: selected fat herring, slightly salted and still more slightly smoked, retailed both from boxes and in cans, domestic and imported. As those in boxes are not intended for long keeping they should be consumed as soon as possible after curing. They are best from October to March.

BLOOD WURST: a large sausage chiefly of pork, with hog blood, etc. See SAUSAGES.

BLUE. See item on BLUING at foot of this page.

BLUEBERRY: a bluish-black berry of the Vaccinium family. See HUCKLEBERRY.

BLUEFISH (See Color page III of FISH): a fish found at different periods the length of the Atlantic coast and consequently in season all the year, Florida supplying it during the winter months. It takes its name from the blue color of its skin and the slightly bluish tint of the flesh. It varies in size from half a pound to ten pounds--being occasionally found as heavy as twenty pounds. The very small fish caught during the summer months are known as "Snapper Blue."

BLUE LICK SPRINGS. See general article on table and medicinal MINERAL WATERS.

BLUING or BLUE: used in washing clothes to give them a whiter appearance. It is retailed in both solid and liquid form in many grades. Indigo (which see) is the original form but Prussian blue and aniline dyes are now very largely employed.

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Liquid blue is very apt to freeze and should be kept in a warm place or the b{illegible}ing bottles may entail great damage to other articles in stock.

BOAR'S HEAD: formerly applied only to the head of the wild boar but now to of any male pig, domestic or otherwise, when served whole. The wild boar, which a shorter body and longer tusks and snout than the domestic hog and bears a thick {illegible} coat, is till hunted in Continental Europe, Northern Africa and Asia Minor.

BOB-WHITE. The "Bob-White"--its name represents its call--is generally known as the Quail (which see). In some parts of the country it is erroneously called "partridge" and the "Virginia partridge."

BOCKSBEUTEL, Boxbeutel: a peculiar shaped bottle in which Steinwein and {illegible}tenwein, fine Bavarian white wines, are generally imported.

BOCKWURST: a term applied to various small sausages served with Bock Beer.

BOILING. See sub-head in article on COOKERY.

BOLETUS: the large mushroom imported under the French name of Cèpes. MUSHROOMS.

BOLOGNA: a well-known sausage, originated in Bologna, Italy. See SAUSAGES.

BOMBAY DUCKS: a familiar name for canned Bummaloe Fish (imported from India).

BONITO: a fish varying in size from five to eight pounds, found along the Atlantic coast, generally following the mackerel, which it resemble {illegible} scale coloring. It is in season from June to October. Its {illegible} is rather dark.

[Illustration: An illustration of a fish with pointed fins and diagonal stripes across its body.]

BORAGE: a garden herb. The young leaves smell somewhat like cucumbers and used for salads and cooked as greens, etc. One or two leaves or flower spikes are {illegible} added to top a punch or wine cup.

BORATED FISH: fish preserved by boracic acid; largely imported from Norway.

BORAX: one of the most useful of chemicals. The world's supply formerly came from Asia, principally Thibet and Persia, but the United States now furnishes a considerable share of it, the largest deposits being those discovered in the middle and late part of the last century in California and Nevada. The most famous are those "Death Valley" in California, the borax being generally found in depressions w{illegible} were probably lakes in prehistoric times. The borax there is generally in the shape of balls, from the smallest possible size to others as large as pumpkins, and usually stuck in clay around the depressions or "marshes"--technically so called though a majority of them have been dry as dust for ages and the others hold water only during


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rainy season. When these balls are broken they show a white crystal interior, which changes to a hard dull grey on further exposure to the air. In other parts, the borax is mixed with sand on the surface and in masses under ground.

In its powdered and refined form and as boric or boracic acid, which is borax decomposed by sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, borax has an extraordinarily wide field of usefulness. It is largely used in the silk and textile trades, in paper making and various other manufactures, as a substitute for and in the composition of soap, in the making of shampoo and other hair preparations, for preserving foods and liquids of all kinds, in the sick room and nursery, for the extermination of all manner of bugs and vermin, etc.

Adulterations were formerly very common but the bulk of the borax sold to-day is pure. To test it, add to the powder a few drops of strong vinegar--if it effervesces, it is not pure. The most commonly used adulterant is bicarbonate of sodium.

BORDEAUX WINES--Red. See CLARET.

BORDEAUX WINES--White: a majority of the white Bordeaux wines exported are produced in the celebrated Graves section of the department of the Gironde.

The cheapest grades are generally marketed here as Barsac, Bommes and Graves; the next higher as Sauternes, Haut Sauternes and Haut Barsac. The term "Haut" in this connection means "Upper," the higher sections of the Sauternes and Barsac districts producing wine of better quality.

The most famous variety is the Château Yquem Sauternes--some vintages attain exceedingly high value. The other first "crûs" (growths or districts) are Château Latour-Blanche, Château Peyraguey, Château Vigneau, Château Suduiraut, Château Coutet, Château Climenz Château (Bayle) Guiraud, Château Rieussec and Château Rabaut.

The principal differences in the making of such wines as "Sauternes" and "Claret" are, that for Sauternes, "white" grapes are generally employed and that they are left on the vines until the last possible moment, until they are beginning to wrinkle with ripeness, so as to obtain the fullest amount of sugar; that the juice is pressed and removed from the grapes as rapidly as possible to avoid its being colored by the skins, and that, going into the press later in the season, fermentation is arrested before all the sugar has been transformed into alcohol--producing a wine "white" instead of red and sweeter than claret--in which practically all sugar has been transformed. In addition is, generally, a special selection of the grapes used--varieties heavy in sugar, such as Sauvignon and Semeillan, being grown in the majority of the vineyards of the Sauternes district--and, frequently, the addition of a small quantity of sugar-syrup after fermentation.

The bulk of American "Sauternes" is produced in the Pacific Coast range district. Both the Eastern and Southern wine districts also supply a limited quantity, some brands being excellent in flavor and characteristics.

See general article on WINES--Temperature, Decanting, etc.

BORECOLE: a variety of cabbage with open leaves instead of head. It is best known popularly as Kale (which see).

BOSTON BROWN BREAD: a famous New England specialty. See BREAD.

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BOUILLABAISSE: a famous French fish stew. See Culinary Terms in A{illegible}

BOUILLON: clarified broth. See general article on SOUPS.

BOXBEUTEL: a special type of wine flagon or bottle. See BOCKSBEUTEL.

BRAINS: should be bright in color and firm. All kinds are esteemed as de {illegible} but beef brains and calves' brains, the latter being the choicer, are the varieties retailed. In Southern cookery, the preference is generally given to sheeps' and brains.

BRAISED BEEF or Beef à la Mode: generally part of the "round," boiled with {illegible} and other vegetables cut small. See Braising in article on COOKERY.

BRAN: part of the husk or coat of wheat or other grain (see WHEAT) obtaine{illegible} process of flour making. Its principal use is as food for live stock but it is also {illegible} with white flour to make Brown or Graham bread, etc.

BRANDIED CHEESE: old cream-cheese mixed and potted with brandy. Se{illegible} on CHEESE.

BOUQUET of HERBS: a small bundle or "faggot" of various pot herbs {illegible} parsley, thyme, celery, bay leaf, etc., for flavoring soups and stews.

BRANDY: a liquor obtained by the distillation of the fermented juice of fruits {illegible} the word is employed without any qualifying prefix, it is nearly always under {illegible} the liquor distilled from wine, i.e., the fermented juice of grapes. Other {illegible} generally carry the explanations of their source--as "Cherry Brandy," "Peach Brandy," etc. After grapes, the most important commercial type of European br{illegible} that made from dried figs.

Red wines yield the largest amount of brandy, but the product of white {illegible} considered the finer and more delicate.

When first distilled, the liquor, known then as "white brandy," is entirely {illegible} and will so remain if stored in glass or earthenware. Custom first stored it in {illegible} casks and these gradually gave it the yellowish color which it had when first {illegible} The public obtained the impression that the darker the brandy the greater its s{illegible} and as a consequence a little caramel (burnt sugar) is nearly always added to {illegible} the now characteristic "brandy color."

The finest brandy in the world is that known as Cognac, distilled from fi{illegible} wines grown in the vicinity of the City of Cognac, in the department of Char{illegible} the west of France. The word "Cognac" was for many years, until checked {illegible} lation, so freely used on imported brandies that it is generally taken to be the word for brandy. The proper equivalent is though Eau de Vie, "Cognac" only a {illegible} correctly to brandy from the Cognac district.

The genuine Cognac is divided into four principal grades--"Grande Champagne" or "Fine Champagne" (the very finest), "Petite Champagne," "Borderies" and {illegible}

The name "Champagne" was given in Old France to a plain or upland, the {illegible} of which is chalk with a thin layer of mould. It is only suitable for vine cultiva{illegible}

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There are many such "Champagnes" in France, but the two most famous are those around Reims (the source of Champagne wine) and around Cognac. Their soil and subsoil are similar.

The third grade, "Borderies," is so named because it is from the district "bordering on" the "Champagne."

The fourth is styled "Bois," because formerly the country immediately beyond was a woodland (bois). It is divided into: Fins (fine) bois; Bons (good) bois; Bois ordinaires (ordinary); Bois éloignés (distant).

Cognac as marketed is generally a blending of Grande Champagne or Petite Champagne with Borderies or Bois, the first for flavor and aroma and the second for strength. It is interesting to note that though Cognac is so distinctively a French product, comparatively little of it is consumed in France, the bulk being exported to English speaking countries. In the offices of the largest Cognac firms, nearly 95% of the correspondence is conducted in the English language.

The use of the word "champagne" in connection with brandy is also sometimes attributed to the custom of adding a small quantity of the finest brandy in the last stages of champagne making--the choicest brandy being used, the entire grade attained commercial significance as "Champagne brandy."

"Cognac Vierge" is distilled from wine made from the first pressing of the grapes.

The term Fine Champagne is also applied to a blend produced in Languedoc and Roussillon.

Armagnac is another high class French brandy, produced in a district in South-west France, formerly known as Armagnac--now chiefly within the department of Gers.

Eau de vie de Marc, or "lees brandy," is a distinct grade distilled from the fermented liquor obtained by steeping in water the skins, etc., left over from the pressing of the grapes for wine. It is generally of minor quality, but some varieties, as the best grades from the Burgundy district, are very highly rated.

Care should be taken to avoid adulterated and imitation brandies. Their use is unnecessary as there is a plentiful supply of the genuine, both domestic and imported.

Of the domestic product, that from California is generally rated as the best. The average annual output is in the neighborhood of five million gallons. Of this, about one-third, principally of that made from Muscat grapes, is placed on the market as Brandy, the remainder being used to fortify sweet wines, such as Port and Madeira.

Genuine new brandy is frequently given the appearance and flavor of "age" by the addition of a little old rum, old kirsch, etc.

Brandy is used medicinally as a stimulant and for various other purposes. It is distinguished from the majority of other ardent spirits by its light stomachic properties.

BRAWN: veal or pork trimmings, chiefly the latter, seasoned, spiced and pressed. Sold in bulk, canned and sausage form. See HEAD CHEESE.

BRAZIL NUTS, Cream Nuts, Para Nuts: the fruit of a large tree, native to Brazil and Guiana. The nuts are brown and wrinkled in appearance, triangluar in shape, with hard shells and white kernels of very agreeable taste. They grow encased and packed in round seed-vessels (see illustration in first Color Page of NUTS), varying in size from that of a cocoanut to some as large as a man's head and so hard that a sledge hammer is required to break them. See also article on NUTS (Food Values).

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BREAD. It is generally conceded nowadays that the Egyptians were the first to use leaven in the making of bread, though some historians give the credit to the Chinese. From Egypt, the custom traveled to Greece and, later on, the Greeks communicated the process to the Romans, who spread the invention throughout the northern countries during their campaigns.

The allusions to bread in the works of the classic authors are very numerous. Athenaeus mentions no fewer than sixty-two varieties as known among the ancient Greeks and good descriptions of many of them are given. They employed in the making a great variety of grains--wheat, barley, rye, millet, spelt, rice, etc.--combining them sometimes with other substances such as the flour of dried lotus roots and the root of the cornflag, the last named first boiled so as to give a sweet taste to the bread.

In ancient Rome, public bakeries were numerous, the great majority of them conducted by Greeks, who had the reputation of making the best bread.

Wheat bread is the most popular in this country because wheat flour's higher percentage of gliadin makes bread that is lighter than that of other flour. It is also credited with being a nearly perfect food ration. It is not as rich in food value as dried ripe beans or peas, but on the other hand it is in a form which is more generally acceptable as a leading article of diet and is easily assimilated. Its principal defect is the lack of fat, and that is generally overcome by the custom of eating it with butter or milk. It is also somewhat deficient in protein--hence the desirability of supplementing it with meat, fish, etc. (see article on FOOD VALUES).

The exact science of modern bread making is a study of infinite minor chemical possibilities, but its fundamental principles may be outlined in a few words. The flour is mixed with water, a little salt and yeast, and left or set in a warm place to "rise." Later on, it is again kneaded and set to rise a second time. Then, as soon as the dough has risen sufficiently, it is shaped into loaves and baked in the oven. The time thus consumed varies in different processes, according to the quantity of yeast used, the temperature maintained, etc. In large modern bakeries, all or nearly all the work is done by machinery.

The raising of the dough is effected by the growth in it of the yeast fungi. The diastase in the dough, produced by the action of the yeast on part of the soluble protein of the flour, converts part of the starch into a kind of sugar, and the yeast cells, feeding on and propagating in this, produce alcoholic fermentation--convert it into alcohol and carbon-dioxide (gas). The alcohol, which passes away by evaporation, is unimportant but the carbon-dioxide, being distributed all through the dough, raises it as it expands in thousands of little pockets or cells in the dough. When the loaves are placed in the oven, the heat kills the yeast cells and stops the fermentation, but at the same time causes the gas already formed to expand still further, thus again raising the bread. Later, the gas forces itself out, but the air cells still remain, held in place by the stiffening in baking of the glî;adin in the dough. The heat also changes some of the moisture into steam, which, being retained in the same or other tiny pockets, aids in the raising process--and the result is the light porous loaf of everyday use.

The brown crust of the baked loaf and much of its pleasing odor, are due principally to the caramelizing of the dextrin and other sugars obtained by the conversion of the starch of the outer surface.

The ordinary bread and rolls of everyday use are made from white flour--obtained by grinding the wheat grain after the bran coat and germ have been removed. For the more "fancy" varieties, milk and water, or milk alone, are substituted for the water in


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[Illustration: A color illustration of four loaves of bread--one square, one round, one rectangular, and one long, each with its own caption.]




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mixing the dough, and in some cases, sugar, butter, lard, etc., are added to it to make it sweeter or richer.

New hot bread is generally rated as a bugbear to any except those of abnormally strong digestive powers--but lovers of good things to eat, who in fear of their lives have refrained from enjoying it, should take a stale loaf, wrap a wet towel around it and set it in a brisk oven for a while. The result will be a hot loaf that tastes better than one fresh from the baker--yet won't worry the digestion at all!

For French bread, just dip the loaf in water and set it in the oven without any cloth around it.

Bread should be kept in an air-tight show-case, box or receptacle which must be frequently scalded and aired--and thoroughly dried before using again.

In other countries, under various circumstances, bread has been made from a great variety of grains, vegetables and nuts. Beans, peas, potatoes, etc., produce fair bread if mixed with wheat or rye to prevent sogginess; rice makes bread of pleasing flavor and attractive appearance; the chestnut bread of the Corsican mountaineers is agreeable and healthful and will keep fresh for as long as two weeks, and acorns, mosses and innumerable roots have also served--either alone or mixed with cereals.

Aerated Bread, very popular in London, is made by charging the water used for wetting the dough with carbon-dioxide (gas), then working it up in enclosed iron kneading machines and putting directly into the oven, instead of allowing the gas to form in the dough from the fermentation caused by the working of yeast. The advantage is that bread can be thus made more quickly and cheaply and chemically purer--but, to the American palate, aerated bread has a rather flat taste. An objection in the trade is that owing to its firm crust it does not show its staleness and when taken away by the bakers is sometimes returned again as fresh--to the injury of the grocer, whose customers naturally complain.

Boston Brown Bread is made from rye, cornmeal and graham flour, well sweetened, principally with molasses, cooked by steaming, boiling or baking, and generally served smoking hot. It was originated in New England and is still very popular there. Within recent years it has attained also a considerable sale in other parts of the country, with a growing use in canned form. It is very nutritious but not as easily digested as wheat bread.

Corn Bread has never attained full favor in the North, but in different forms it is an important article of food in the South, where it is consumed as "corn bread," "corn muffins," "Johnny Cake," "Corn Pone," etc.

French Bread, as generally known in this country, is a long narrow loaf--often eighteen inches long and upward--of crisp crust and proportionately little crumb. In France, there are two distinct types of bread. The kind already mentioned, in Paris sometimes reaching a length of three to five feet, is known as "Pain ordinaire" (ordinary bread). The other is "Pain riche" (rich bread)--a finer variety mixed with milk and made in all sorts of shapes (crescents, etc.), generally of small size.

Gluten Bread is made from ordinary flour dough subjected to straining and pressing under a stream of water until most of the starch is worked out, leaving the gluten as


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the principal component. Properly made, the result is a light elastic loaf especially suitable for diabetic and other patients from whose diet starch (and its product, sugar) should be excluded.

Graham Bread, or Brown Bread, Whole Wheat or Entire Wheat Bread. Graham Bread is generally made from flour which contains all of the "bran coat," or at all events the "aleurone layer" (see WHEAT), but its composition varies considerably. As generally eaten nowadays, it is in other respects made in the same way as "white" bread, but the original Graham bread was made without yeast--the few "holes" in it being due probably to some minor fermentation. In flavor it was sweet and fairly palatable, but a good deal heavier than yeast bread. Whole Wheat or Entire Wheat bread is made from flour which consists sometimes of the entire grain ground up; at others, merely a coarse flour containing part of the aleurone layer and grading between "Graham" and "ordinary" flour.

The comparative advantages of "ordinary" or "white," Graham and Whole Wheat breads have been in dispute a long time. Advocates of Graham and Whole Wheat breads claim for them greater nourishing properties--others contend that "white" bread is more easily digested by the average person and that therefore more food value is assimilated by its use, irrespective of the chemical analyses of the loaves. To a disinterested party, the comparative advantages or otherwise seem to be principally a matter of individual taste and digestion. The chemical difference is slight.

Leavened Bread is bread of any kind, raised or "leavened" by yeast or any similar agent.

Honey Bread is ordinary white bread slightly sweetened.

Macaroni Bread has nothing to do with macaroni. It is ordinary white bread made from flour of the prolific variety of hard wheat know as "Durum" or "Macaroni" wheat, now largely grown in the western and southern states. Its advocates claim for it all the advantages of other wheat flour.

Malt Bread is that in which malt extract is added in making, the result being a bread that is sweeter (from the sugars formed by the action of the diastase of the malt) and moister (because of the dextrin formed). There is also an increase in the phosphatic content, etc.

Pumpernickel is a dark German bread of unbolted rye, very heavy and slightly acid, made from fermented dough. Thinly sliced, it is considered a delicacy when made into sandwiches or eaten with the soup course. It is sold generally by delicatessen dealers--made here and also imported, the latter being canned in thin slices.

Rye Bread, as sold in this country, is generally part rye and part wheat flour, sometimes flavored and sprinkled with caraway seeds.

Full rye bread is heavy in character owing both to the general manner of its manufacture and to a peculiarity of the gluten of rye flour, and has an aromatic taste independent of the flavor of the caraway seed, etc., added in baking. It is a very important article of diet in Germany and the principal staple food in Russia.

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[Illustration: A color illustration of five different loaves of bread, each labeled with a different number.]

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Salt-rising Bread, is bread leavened by the addition to the sponge of a fermented batter of warm milk, salt and, generally, cornmeal. The name is derived from the salt dissolved in the milk to prevent the growth of bacteria in it while it is exposed to the atmosphere awaiting the action of (generally) "wild" yeast (see YEAST).

Unleavened Bread is made without yeast or any other raising agent. Some "dyspeptic breads" are sold in this form, but the most commonly seen type is the "Matzoth," a large round cracker or biscuit, made only of flour and water, eaten during the Jewish Passover--both plain, in place of leavened bread, and cooked in various ways.

Vienna Bread is an American title for loaves made of the same kind of dough used in France for the pain riche mentioned in the paragraph on French Bread. It is seldom if ever baked in Vienna in the large loaves seen here!

[Illustration: An illustration of a man standing among the undergrowth of some trees laden with large fruits.]

BREAD FRUIT: the sweet, starchy fruit of a tree of tropical growth. It is round in shape, nearly or quite as large as a man's head and covered with a thick greenish rind.

The natives generally gather it when the starch is in a mealy condition, then peel it, wrap it in leaves, and bake it by placing between hot stones. They also preserve it by allowing it to putrefy in watertight pits, the result being a mass resembling soft cheese, which, when used, is baked in the same manner as the fresh fruit.

For Northern tables, it is best prepared by scooping a hole in the top, filling with butter and baking. Another method is to boil the entire fruit until tender, then peel, slice and serve with butter sauce. It resembles sweet potato in flavor and texture.

BRETZEL. See PRETZEL.

BRIE CHEESE. See CHEESE.

BRIMSTONE. See matter following title of SULPHUR.

BRINE: water in which salt has been dissolved until it will not take any more. It is used for preserving meats, butter, etc. When employed for meat, saltpetre is generally added to retain or enhance the desired red color and a small quantity of sugar or molasses is sometimes included to give a sweet flavor.

Brine is best kept in kegs made of oak or other hard timber. Meat should not be left in it longer than two months without boiling and skimming the brine, as the latter


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is liable to acquire poisonous qualities. After re-boiling, more salt must be added to bring its strength up again.

In country districts, brine is used over and over again, as old brine containing meat extract is said to take less from meat put in it than fresh brine. It is, though, scalded, skimmed and strengthened after each batch.

BRIOCHE: is, strictly, a slightly sweetened rich bread or very plain cake, but, in general usage, the title is applied to a bun with syrup poured on it. "Fancy" brioches have a centre filling of cherries, pineapple, etc., mixed with liqueur.

BROCCOLI: a variety of the common cabbage produced by cultivation. It is very similar to the Cauliflower, but more highly colored. It is not grown as much as formerly, as Cauliflower is now in the market nearly all the year.

BROILING. See suggestions on this subject in general article on COOKERY.

BROOM CORN: a plant of the same variety as Kaffir corn and sorghum, native to the East Indies, but now cultivated in both this country and Europe. It is said that the American industry is due to Benjamin Franklin, who picked one seed from a whisk brought to Philadelphia by a lady and planted it. It differs from other plants of the same species in having seed heads with longer, straighter and stronger branches or straw. The Standard plant gives the large heads used for carpet brooms, etc., and the Dwarf those made into whisks, etc.

BROOMS: are generally made of broom-corn, the seeds being combed out by machinery. The handles vary from the cheapest to the most expensive woods. For their quality, brooms depend not only upon their material, but upon the way they are put together. They should be securely fastened and wrapped with from two to six ties of twine or wire--the more the better. The corn should be clean, tough, and regular in appearance.

To clean brooms, dip them in hot soap and suds--it can be done on wash days. The life and flexibility of the broom will be improved and the carpets will be cleaner.

BROSE: a kind of porridge made by adding boiling water, milk or broth to oatmeal, or barley or other meal and mixing by stirring. It is named according to the liquid used as a basis--as "water brose," "beef brose," etc. Athole Brose, often used in Scotland as a remedy for a sore throat, is made of oatmeal or honey and whiskey. It takes its name from the town of Athole.

BROTH: a liquid or clear soup obtained by boiling or steeping meat, poultry, game, shell-fish (as clams, etc.) in water, generally with the addition of vegetables or herbs, followed by straining. If obtained at a low temperature, it may contain a considerable percentage of nutriment, but, as generally made, it is principally valuable as a stimulant. Clarified broth is also known as Bouillon and Consommé (see SOUPS).

Broths have especially high value in the treatment of invalids, convalescents and others with delicate stomachs. They are nowadays agreeably diversified by using a variety of distinctive vegetable and other flavoring ingredients--as "celery broth," "tomato broth," etc.--and are so retailed in bottles and cans. See also MEAT EXTRACT.

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BROWN BREAD: a term popularly applied to the various forms of Graham and Whole Wheat bread. See BREAD.

BRUSSELS SPROUTS: one of the numerous special varieties of cabbage, cultivated in Belgium since early in the thirteenth century and now grown in every temperate climate. It is distinguished by its long stalk to which are attached a number of miniature cabbages, each an inch or so in diameter, which in the best varieties are when raw nearly as firm and hard as the stalk itself, but when cooked are as tender as fine cauliflower and possess a very delicate flavor. The chief season is from September to January. The outer skins should be peeled off before cooking and boiling should be continued only long enough to make the "Sprouts" tender--their best qualities are lost and they become watery and mushy if overcooked.

BUCKWHEAT (See Color Page I of GRAINS): originally styled "Beech-wheat" because the grain presents a triangular shape resembling that of the beechnut. It is known in France as "Blé Sarrasin" because report says that it was brought to Europe by the Crusaders. The plant, hardy and very rapid in growth, is raised in this country chiefly in Pennsylvania, New York and the New England states.

[Illustration: An illustration of a large field full of blossoming plants with a barn in the background.]

Buckwheat flour is very popular for batter cakes, especially in cold weather. Unmixed, it is dark in color and of a rather rank bitter flavor, but this is generally modified by mixing with wheat "middlings"--the combination making dough that is lighter and sweeter, and cakes which brown more rapidly on the griddle.

In buying Buckwheat flour, small, frequent purchases are best. It should be kept cool and well covered as it is much sought by insects.

BUFFALO BERRY: a fruit resembling the barberry, popular in the West, where it is used in any manner suitable for currants. Its name originated in the old-time custom of serving it as a sauce with buffalo meat.

[Illustration: An illustration of a branch with long leaves and clusters of small berries on its stems.]

BUFFALO LITHIA. See MINERAL WATERS.

BUN: a well-known class of light sweet cakes of small size and generally round shape.

See CROSS BUNS, BATH BUNS, etc.

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BURDOCK or Gobo: a vegetable native to Japan and in general characteristic similar to the common wild Burdock. Its young roots are variously prepared.

BURGUNDY WINES: take their name from the ancient province of Burgundy, France. They are much "heavier" than Bordeaux wines and contain a considerably greater alcohol percentage. The best varieties, those produced in the hilly lands between Dijon and Chalons in the department of Coté d'Or, rank very high in the esteem of connoisseurs and are often recommended to invalids as a stimulating and highly tonic beverage.

Burgundies are divided into two principal classes--"red" and "white," the red being generally the choicer. The chief types are sold both "still" and "sparkling."

Red Burgundies are subdivided into three classes. The most famous, those of CLASS I, are Romanée Conti, Chambertin, Clos de Vougeot, Richebourg and La Tâche--varying in retail value, according to vintage, etc., from one to ten dollars a quart, the last-named being for a famous old vintage of Romanée Conti. The word "clos" means literally "enclosure" and hence "locality" or "vineyard."

With the exception of the CLASS I varieties and a few examples of CLASSES II and III, the bulk of the Burgundy imported into the United States is marketed under the name of the commune, or district, of production--as Beaune, Corton, Nuits, Pommard, Volnay, Vosné, Vougeot, etc.

Prominent among the lower grade, lighter red varieties are Macon and Beaujolais.

Though "white" Burgundy as a class is not as highly considered as red Burgundy, the best vintages of one variety, Montrachet, which resembles very fine Rhine Wine, are world-famous. Other excellent white Burgundies are Meursault and Chablis, the latter in varying qualities from quite ordinary to choice.

High grade Burgundies will keep from twenty to thirty years, and sometimes longer, often greatly improving with age. The lower grades are best at from five to ten years.

Burgundy should never be served as delivered from the merchant as it requires a considerable time, two or three weeks at least, to settle after being disturbed. It should be drunk at about the temperature of the average dining room or a trifle warmer. It should never be iced. Old Burgundies require care in decanting to be enjoyed at their best--see general article on WINES.

BURNET or Pimpinel: a garden herb, the young leaves of which are used for salads. They resemble the cucumber in flavor.

BUSHEL. See tables of Weights and Measures in APPENDIX.

BUTTER: as a food dates back to the time of the ancient Jews, but by the Greeks and Romans it was used only as an ointment and even now it is largely sold for that purpose by apothecaries in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean.

The greater part of the butter sold by merchants to-day is that made by creameries and the result of this centralization has been to improve greatly the average quality and to establish uniformity so that varying qualities may be intelligently graded.

By the old-fashioned method, cream for butter making was obtained by allowing the milk to stand from twenty to thirty-six hours, the cream which rose to the top being removed when sufficiently "ripened" or soured.

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By the creamery method, the cream is generally separated from the whole milk while it is still sweet by running it through specially designed centrifugal separators. It is then treated by the addition of pasteurized skim milk, previously curdled by the addition of "pure cultures" (see BACTERIA), in order to bring about the lactic fermentation essential to a butter of good flavor. If the churning is to proceed at once, which is preferable, from 20% to 30% of the "starter" is added, but if time is allowed for ripening, an addition of about 5% is sufficient. Butter made from separator-cream, untreated, is not "butter" in the true sense of the term--it is better described as an emulsion of butter-fat.

The great majority of the butters of commerce show a water content between 12% and 16%. U. S. "Standard" butter contains not less than 82.5% of milk fat.

[Illustration: A man pulls the lever on a large machine, which is pouring some liquid into a large jug.]

Denmark has for years held the reputation of producing the finest butter in the world. It can be found all over the world in shops where luxuries are sold. In South America, in the East and West Indies, in India, Egypt and in tropical countries generally, epicures pay $1.00 a pound for it in tins of one, two and three pounds' weight. No other country has been able to produce butter that will stand changes of climate so well. Its excellence is due to the efficiency of the government system for controlling the output. Almost equally good results are obtained by the regulations of the Cork Market, Ireland, and by government control in New Zealand. Improvements in creamery methods and conditions promise to give equal reputation to the United States product before long.

More than ordinary care is required if a merchant wishes to establish and maintain a reputation for selling good butter. In the first place, it generally pays to buy grades a little choicer than that of the average market--a half cent or a cent a pound additional often means something quite a little choicer than the regular run--and particular customers are seldom averse to paying a cent or two extra for especially fine butter. Whether or not this is done--it is of course not advisable in every neighborhood--it is very poor policy to charge higher than the market value of any grade. Not one person in a thousand can judge the value of coffee, for example, with any degree of accuracy, but a big percentage have keen noses and palates wherewith to discriminate in the matter of butter. It is very easy and very damaging to get a reputation for selling poor butter.

A retailer should know how to test butter both by taste and smell. Many merchants depend on only one or the other of these senses and as a result they often find themselves at fault in their purchases. This is particularly true of the dealer who buys by taste and is addicted to the use of tobacco or liquors. At times, his sense of taste may be keen enough to discriminate in a remarkable manner, but if he has recently been smoking he will find that it cannot be depended upon. Hence it is wisdom to cultivate both taste and smell to a point where, if one fails, the other can be relied upon. The expert buyer generally tests first by smell, breathing it well


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back into the nose, then by taste and finally by allowing a little to melt in the mouth and letting the flavor expand up through the nostrils--this last test to determine its keeping qualities.

[Illustration: An illustration of a huge round machine containing some doughlike substance, attended by a single person.]

Butter to be especially avoided is that which is "lardy," "oily," or "woody" in flavor. It should neither be oily nor "dry" in appearance, nor flecked, cloudy or streaked. There should be no holes or crevices in it--as these enclose moist air and favor fermentation. When broken, it should show a rough fracture--if it breaks smooth, it is deficient in "grain"--which in a majority of cases stands for richness of quality. When pressed, the moisture which exudes should be quite clear--if it is milky, it possesses inferior keeping qualities. The highest prices are paid for butter hand-worked, unsalted and very dry--under 11% moisture.

In buying by tub, it is well to verify the weight of butter obtained, instead of depending only on the classification of the tub as "5 lb.," "10 lb.," etc.

Renovated" or "Process" butter is that produced by working over low grade or slightly deteriorated butter, by first melting and settling it, then skimming off froth and scum and discarding the curd and brine settled, freshening by strong currents of air, mixing in fresh milk inoculated with bacterial cultures, churning and then rapidly cooling. The butter is then drained, salted, worked (to remove the excess of milk) and packed or made into prints. In the hands of a reliable manufacturer, who refrains from using improper materials, the processing of butter is a distinct advantage to the food supply and the product is very similar to "real" butter. As, however, there are differences in the nitrogenous components it should never be sold or represented as fresh. In several states such sales and representations are prohibited by law.

An easy test to distinguish between fresh butter and "process butter," and also oleomargarine, is to boil a small amount, stirring thoroughly two or three times. Process butter and oleomargarine will boil noisily, sputtering more or less--like a mixture of grease and water--but will produce little or no foam. Genuine butter on the other hand boils with less noise and produces an abundance of foam.

To distinguish between process butter and oleomargarine, melt a sample and note the odor--in process butter (and fresh butter) the "butyric acid" smell will be very noticeable, but it is absent from oleomargarine, a "meaty" odor taking its place.

Butter is now generally classified as Creamery, Process, Factory, Packing Stock and Grease Butter--defined by the N.Y. Mercantile Exchange as follows:

Creamery:--Butter made in a creamery from cream separated at the creamery or gathered from farmers.

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Process:--Butter made by melting butter, clarifying the fat therefrom and re-churning with fresh milk, cream or skim milk, or by other similar process.

Factory:--Butter collected in rolls, lumps, or whole packages and reworked by the dealer or shipper.

Packing Stock:--Original farm butter in rolls, lumps or otherwise, without additional moisture or salt.

Grease Butter:--All classes of butter grading below No. 3 Packing Stock.

Creamery, Process and Factory Butters are, in the New York market, graded as "Special," "Extra," 1st, 2nd and 3rd. Packing Stock is graded as 1st, 2nd and 3rd.

The very choicest butter is thus Creamery Special.

The word "Special" as applied to any of the three mentioned classifications is defined as requiring 90% of the butter so graded to conform to the standard, and the remaining 10% to be fully up to the "Extra" grade, the quality just below "Special."

Following are the Standards of "Special" grades of butter:

Flavor--must be fine, sweet, clean and fresh, if of current make; and fine, sweet and clean, if held.

Body--must be firm and uniform.

Color--a light straw shade, even and uniform.

Salt--medium salted.

Package--sound, good, uniform and clean.

Equally important with proper selection, is the care of butter after it reaches the store. A separate refrigerator should be reserved for it as it readily absorbs the odor of other articles, thereby losing its own delicate flavor and often acquiring a most disagreeable odor and "twang." Meats, cheese and some fruits, as cantaloupes, pineapples, etc., are especially detrimental. The refrigerator must be kept thoroughly clean, as otherwise it will itself spoil the flavor--and pine wood in all forms should be kept away.

In the sale of butter, clerks should be instructed to handle it as carefully as possible. In cutting tub butter, the aim should be to avoid "mussing" or mangling it--a clean cut slab is much more pleasing than when half of it looks like a collection of odds and ends.

Wooden butter dishes are not used as much as formerly, but where they are in favor it is advisable to wrap the butter in waxed paper first. The more popular method now is to wrap in waxed paper, then in ordinary wrapping paper.

If butter is ladled, all the implements used should be scalded at least once a day, and kept in fresh-made brine.

When butter becomes rancid, it is due to the formation of Butyric acid. A fair measure of freshness can be obtained by thoroughly washing it with fresh milk, which readily absorbs Butyric acid, and then with fresh water to remove the milk, so that it will not sour in the butter.

All this care on the part of the retailer is, however, often upset by the customer's lack of care after purchasing. Whenever possible, customers should be advised to keep butter free from contaminating influences. Very few households can enjoy separate refrigerator compartments for butter, but every one can have a covered china or earthenware vessel in which to keep it--then, if the refrigerator is kept scoured and dry and the vessel clean, scalded before use, and always covered, there is a reasonable chance of the butter retaining its purity unless the other articles in the refrigerator have very strong odors.

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If a customer has no jar, the best advice is to keep the butter always thoroughly wrapped in the waxed paper in which you deliver it.

A good refrigerator and a plentiful supply of ice are, of course, desirable for keeping butter, but care along the lines mentioned is to so great an extent the essential point, that butter will stay fresh and pure for a reasonable time without either refrigerator or ice if kept in a dry, clean, covered vessel set in a cool place--the butter under such circumstances being preferably kept wrapped in waxed paper inside the vessel. A damp or "musty" room--or its vicinity--should be carefully avoided as that odor has as close an affinity for butter as any other.

Where such advice can be given without offense, it is well worth while imparting it, with a view to avoiding the trouble so frequently caused by customers, generally in perfectly good faith, bringing butter back as "bad" which had left the store in good condition.

The natural color of the best creamery butter throughout the greater part of the year varies from almost white to a delicate light yellow or cream--it is only in the spring when the cows are first turned out to pasture that it naturally presents a really yellow color. The average consumer, however, expects butter to have a good bright color all the year round--and in consequence nearly all butter is brought up to that appearance by the use of various coloring additions. The colors used are chiefly those derived from vegetable sources, as annatto and carrot juice.

In contrast to the general taste, there has developed in the larger cities a considerable demand among the customers of high class stores for un-colored and un-salted butter--variously known as "Fresh," "Sweet" and "French." Some of the French stores of the metropolis and elsewhere have always handled this for their patrons, but the present sale to a large number of families of other nationalities and to many high class hotels and restaurants is of comparatively recent origin.

The perfumed butter used in Paris is made by taking pats of "fresh" or unsalted butter and placing them on a layer of some variety of flowers, according to the perfume desired, a piece of muslin being laid between the butter and blossoms. Another layer of flowers is placed above the butter and then ice is added.

BUTTERFISH (See Color Page III of FISH): a fish varying in weight from four to the pound up to three-quarters and one pound each, found principally along the northern Atlantic coasts. In appearance it suggests the pompano. It is most plentiful during the summer and fall.

BUTTERINE: an artificial butter composed of beef oil, neutral lard, etc. See article on OLEOMARGARINE.

BUTTERMILK: the liquid which remains after the separation of butter from cream. It is generally a by-product of butter manufacture. When produced under sanitary conditions and drunk fresh, it is not only exceedingly agreeable to many palates, but is very nutritious, as it contains all the cream nutrients excepting the fat. In Scotland and Ireland, it is consumed in enormous quantities as an accompaniment to porridge and potatoes, and its use, principally as a beverage, has in the last few years been greatly extended in this country.

A pint of buttermilk of average richness contains about as much nourishment as 2 1/2 ounces of beef. As a cheap source of protein, which comprises nearly half of its


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[Illustration: A color illustration of a carton of brussels sprouts, accompanied by an inlaid cut of the plant on which they grow.]




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percentage of food value, it is even more deserving of notice than skim milk, to which it is very similar in chemical components--though generally regarded as inferior, it ranks higher in nutriment value. It is an especially valuable addition to the dietary when there is a deficiency of other nitrogenous food and therefore combines well with a farinaceous diet, supplying the protein lacking in cereals, etc. (see FOOD VALUES).

Though buttermilk contains as a rule very little milk fat, it is seldom entirely free from it, and it frequently happens that where milk is abundant and rich a considerable quantity of fat is allowed to remain in the buttermilk in the form of butter. This increases its food value, but a careful skimming may be necessary if the milk is intended for special dietary.

When made from fresh whole or partly-skimmed milk with selected or cultivated lactic ferments or bacteria, buttermilk contains high medical virtue--tending to prolong life by preventing decomposition of food in the bowels and avoiding the abnormal formation of gas, uric acid, toxins and other undesirable products of excessive intestinal fermentation. This result is produced by the action of the serviceable bacteria which flourish, to the exclusion of undesirable micro-organisms, in the lactic acid into which a considerable part of the sugary food elements is converted by the ferments introduced into the milk. The only important difference between buttermilk thus prepared and the creamery product is that the natural process is accelerated and the introduction of other and undesirable bacteria can be prevented.

Buttermilk is best kept in glass or china vessels as the lactic acid is liable to affect other receptacles.

BUTTERNUT (See Color Page I of NUTS): the oily nut of the North American White Walnut, ripening in September. It is of the same order as the ordinary Black Walnut but is longer, and has an exceedingly rough shell. The meat is rich, oily and agreeable in flavor. When young and tender, it makes a delicious pickle.

BUTTON MUSHROOM: the Mousseron of French importations. See MUSHROOMS.

BUTYRIC ACID: the oily acid which under certain conditions forms in butter and gives it the smell and flavor generally described as "rancid." Commercial Butyric Acid, a colorless liquid, is obtained from numerous sources.

BUTYRIC ETHER: a fragrant compound-ether obtained by treatment of salts of butyric acid, employed in the manufacture of several artificial fruit extracts, particularly apple, melon, pineapple and strawberry.

CABBAGE: the vegetable which probably comes next to the potato in the quantity consumed. It is found in more than seventy varieties, of which several are of sufficiently distinct form, both in appearance and quality, to be generally known under special titles, as Broccoli, Brussels Sprouts, Kale, Kohlrabi and Savoy Cabbage (which see under their respective heads). The varieties of the common cabbage may be grouped in two classes, the Early and Late, according to their time of ripening.

[Illustration: A small illustration of a head of cabbage.]

Only cabbages that are crisp and of bright color can be considered desirable. If to be kept for any considerable length of time, they require a


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temperature near freezing--the average cellar is too warm to answer the purpose. If stored in barrels, they are best placed with the roots uppermost.

In places where cold storage is not available and circumstances warrant the trouble, cabbage of any kind, and several other vegetables, as celery, can be kept fresh for a considerable length of time by cutting so as to leave about two inches of stem below the leaves, scooping out the stem for from an inch to two inches, splitting the core of the vegetable to prevent sprouting, then suspending by a cord attached to the stem and each day filling the hollow part of the stem with fresh cold water.

A pinch of bi-carbonate of sodium added to the water in which cabbage is boiled will retain the green color of the leaves. It is good policy to throw away both the unconsumed portion and the water in which it was cooked.

Red Cabbage is a favorite for pickling.

See also articles on SAUERKRAUT and SLAW or "Cold Slaw."

CABERNET: wine, both "white" and claret style, domestic and imported, from the Cabernet grape, the variety principally cultivated in the famous Médoc section of France. The fruit is fragrant and yields a delicate, brilliant, rather light-colored wine.

CACTUS: an order of curious, usually prickly, generally leafless plants, with fleshy stems or bodies--a number of them bushy, some resembling telegraph poles in general appearance and conformation, others of round or oval shape suggesting huge spiny melons, etc. Many types are capable of extensive growth in regions so arid as to be otherwise unproductive. A majority of the most important edible-fruit varieties are included in the Opuntia genus, the fruits being best known in this country under the title of PRICKLY PEARS (which see). Among other interesting examples are the BARBADOS GOOSEBERRY, MEXICAN STRAWBERRY and STRAWBERRY PEAR, and the fruit of the MELON THISTLE, all of which are described in their alphabetical positions.

CAFFEINE: the stimulating principle of coffee. It is chemically identical with the theine of tea, kola, etc.

CAKE: is made in many varieties in modern bakeries, from the very plain to the extremely "rich"--as the heavier kinds of fruit cakes. If of sound materials and properly baked, it is as nutritious and wholesome as it is agreeable to the palate. Some people find the rich types difficult of digestion, but many more would be able to enjoy cake without any unpleasant after-effects if they were to treat it as essentially a part of the meal--to be eaten in place of some other portion thereof--instead of looking upon it as an "extra" and thus throwing additional work on a stomach already loaded with other foods.

To keep cake fresh, put an open vessel of water in the show-case.
To keep flies away, sprinkle cloves in it. Tin is the best receptacle.

CALCIMINE or Kalsomine: a superior form of Whitewash. A mineral and glutinous composition made in white and colored form for tinting and decorating plastered and sand-finished surfaces, such as ceilings and walls.

Calcimines vary greatly in quality, but are all furnished in powdered form requiring the addition only of hot or cold water.

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CALECANNON or Kolcannon: a dish common to some parts of Ireland, which consists generally of a bit of salt pork with potatoes, cabbage and seasoning.

CALF'S BRAINS: a meat delicacy in great popular demand. See BRAINS.

CALF'S-FOOT JELLY: is made of gelatine extracted from calf's-feet. Sweetened and flavored with sherry, etc., it is served as a dessert. It is also a favorite item in convalescent dietaries.

CALIPASH, CALIPEE: the upper and lower parts of turtle-meat. See TURTLE.

CAMEMBERT: one of the most popular of French cheeses. See CHEESE.

CAMPHOR: is a tough and crystalline stearoptene from the wood of the Camphor Laurel or Camphor tree, native to China, Japan and Borneo. It is generally obtained by chopping the wood into fragments and placing in a "still" with a certain quantity of water, the steam generated carrying the camphor off in vapor. After various processes, it resolidifies as a yellow-brown, semi-transparent mass, which is then refined and pressed into various shapes.

In addition to its household use in wardrobes and clothes-trunks to keep away insects, camphor is employed in the manufacture of celluloid and explosives, to make the stars and fire of the pyrotechnists, by the varnish-maker to increase the solubility of copal and other gums, etc. Mixed with six times its weight of clay and distilled, it suffers decomposition and yields a yellow, aromatic volatile oil, smelling strongly of thyme and rosemary, which is much used to adulterate some of the more costly essential oils and to perfume fancy soaps.

Synthetic camphor is now made from fine white turpentine. It is more resinous than gum camphor and less aromatic, but possesses the same general merits and qualities and is equally good for medicinal and most commercial purposes. Its sale commercially depends upon the comparative market values of gum camphor and turpentine. If turpentine is high in price and gum camphor low, the synthetic is not able to compete with the natural product.

CANARY SEED: the seed of the canary grass, native to the Canary Islands, but long ago naturalized in many temperate climates. Its principal use in this country is as bird food. It is generally mixed with rape and other seed that cheapen it, but the straight Canary seed is decidedly preferable. It should be kept in a dry place and away from vermin.

Industrially, a flour made from Canary seed is employed in the manufacture of fine cotton goods and silk stuffs, and in the Canary Islands, Italy and North Africa it is used as food.

[Illustration: An illustration of a plant with long, thin leaves and a cluster of seeds at the top.]

CANARY WINE: a gold colored wine resembling Madeira, made in the Canary Islands, principally on the Island of Teneriffe. When new, it is rough and unpleasant, but after two or three years it becomes mild and very agreeable. It was at one time a very fashionable wine.

CANDIED FRUIT. See article on CRYSTALLIZED FRUIT.

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CANDIED PEEL: the crystallized rinds of lemons, citrons, etc. See CITRON.

CANDLES: are now generally made by molding in metal forms, though some grades, notably church candles, are still made by the dipping process. The materials chiefly employed are stearin, paraffin and beeswax, separate and in various combinations and compositions. For decorative purposes they are frequently colored with aniline dyes.

Tallow candles, formerly the most common, are now seldom sold except in frontier districts and other remote parts--they are very easily and cheaply manufactured but burn away so much more rapidly that other kinds are really less expensive.

Stearin candles are also known as "Adamantine" candles because they are capable of sustaining a very warm temperature without bending. They give excellent service and are deservedly popular. Stearin is obtained from tallow by separating it from the oil and glycerine. Its crystalline structure at first rendered manufacture difficult as the crystals contracted when the candles cooled after molding, but this has been remedied by mixing in a little paraffin.

Paraffin, a petroleum product which is largely employed to-day, makes a clear candle resembling wax and gives a good pleasant light. A little stearin is usually added as the pure paraffin is apt to bend or droop when warm.

Beeswax candles are employed principally for church and decorative purposes.

Spermaceti, from the head of the sperm whale, was formerly an important candle material but is now practically out of use.

Hotel candles are merely ordinary candles of about half the usual size.

Modern candles burn with a quiet, steady flame. If they flare, flicker and gutter, it is because they are exposed to drafts. The cotton wicks now used are braided and are chemically so treated as to be self-consuming--snuffing them is no longer necessary.

Although petroleum, gas and electricity are improved factors in artificial lighting, candles are still used in large quantities on account of their adaptability for producing a light promptly under all conditions, and, chiefly, because they have the advantage over all other forms of lighting in being both portable and absolutely safe.

CANDY. U. S. "Standard" Candy is defined as a product prepared from a saccharine substance or substances, with or without the addition of harmless coloring, flavoring or filling materials, containing no terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow or other mineral substances or poisonous colors or flavors or other injurious ingredients.

A candy department, if properly managed, is generally a source of good profit, and advertising, for the grocer. To handle it to advantage, however, proper facilities--in the form of glass show-cases, etc.--are absolutely necessary. A messy looking, fly-attracting candy-counter is worse than none at all.

It is usually profitable to stock three distinct lines--(1) "Penny" goods for children, (2) moderate price candies for the average customer, and (3) "fancy" candies.

All kinds should be handled in small lots so as to ensure a speedy turnover and, consequently, fresh goods at all times. They should be kept from exposure to heat or dampness. If the demand warrants a large stock, as much as possible of it should be kept in a special cooling room or cabinet of moderate temperature.

A good supply of pretty boxes, lace paper, wax paper, candy tongs, etc., is a great stimulant to custom. A box of candy fixed up with all such little fancy extras appeals with special force to the feminine appetite--and pocketbook.

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The materials principally used in the manufacture of candy are sugar, chocolate, cocoanut, nuts, raisins, corn syrup, fruit pulps, cherries, gum arabic, cooking starch, molasses and licorice. Any desired tint can now be obtained by vegetable colors or harmless coal-tar dyes (see COLORS).

Candies may be classified according to their nature or method of manufacture as follows:

HARD BOILED CANDY: candies cooked to a high degree of temperature, such as stick candy, lemon drops, hoarhound drops, etc. These are generally made by the vacuum process.

OPEN FIRE CANDY: candies cooked in open kettles over furnace fires of coke, and pulled over hooks or on pulling machines, such as molasses taffy, cream taffy, etc.

PAN WORK: various forms of candy, nuts, etc., coated with sugar in revolving copper kettles or pans, such as sugar-coated almonds, jelly beans, cinnamon imperials, burnt almonds and burnt peanuts.

GUM WORK: candy cooked in large melting kettles, then molded in impressions made in starch, dried, separated from starch and sugared, such as gum drops. These are also allowed to stand in sugar syrup over night, thus forming a crystal on the goods, which gives them a bright, brilliant lustre.

CHOCOLATES: various kinds of candy dipped in chocolate, such as chocolate creams, chocolate almonds, chocolate chips, etc.

CREAMS: sugar cooked low and beaten to a creamy consistence, molded in impressions made in starch, dried, separated from starch, and crystallized.

CARAMELS: sugar and corn syrup cooked to a proper consistence in open stirring kettles, run out in thin sheets on marble slab tables and cut into squares when cooled.

COCOANUT CANDY: sugar, corn syrup and cocoanut, cooked in open stirring kettles, run out on marble slab tables and cut into various shapes when cooled.

MARSHMALLOWS: sugar, corn syrup and gelatine, beaten together, molded in impressions in starch, dried, separated from starch and dusted with powdered sugar.

There are endless varieties of candy made by combinations of different materials, varying in wholesale value from 4c. to 50c. a pound and in retail from 10c. to $1.25. When eaten in moderation, it is as wholesome as it is palate-pleasing.

The United States consumes more candy per capita than any other country in the world--its annual output is about 400,000,000 pounds.

CANISTER: originally a basket of kanna or reed, now a box or case for tea, etc.

CANNED GOODS. The preservation of foods by sterilization and hermetical sealing is not a new process, but its present importance as an industry is of comparatively recent origin.

The list of articles which are preserved by canning is a long one, and includes a great variety of fish, meats, fruits, vegetables, poultry, soups, etc.--yet the industry is susceptible to still greater development. Current opinion in this country credits the United States with being the foremost exponent of canned goods and it is true that in several items, such as salmon, tomatoes, corn, etc., the total output is considerably greater than that of all other parts of the world combined, but in diversity of articles we have much to learn from Europe. We are all acquainted with some of the special French lines, but it would surprise the average reader to see the variety of the outputs of other continental nations. Holland, for instance, has canneries which put up from


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two to several hundred different items. The list includes nearly every possible vegetable, in first and second qualities, separate and mixed--as for example, several varieties of peas, separate, and combinations of "green peas and spring carrots," etc., numerous combinations of vegetables and meat--as, "beef and onions," "green peas and veal," "chestnuts and sausages," "spinach and ham," etc.; and all kinds of meat delicacies, poultry, game, soups, sauces, fruits, etc. The most numerous items are vegetables, meats and mixed vegetables, and meat.

Many of the canned articles used in Europe, but at present unknown in this country, are sure to become popular here in course of time if canning interests foster public confidence by rigid inspection of their outputs and unremitting vigilance to see that irresponsible or unscrupulous concerns do not foist undesirable goods on the market. Canned goods consisting of sound foods, put up with proper care and handled thereafter with reasonable precautions, are just as wholesome and nutritious as the fresh articles.

To foster the trade in canned goods, which offer large future possibilities for him, the retailer should use every possible care to see that a customer receives nothing that is open to suspicion as to the quality, nor objection as to the quantity, of the edible contents of the can. A can of tomatoes, for example, should contain chiefly tomato flesh--it should not reveal on opening a superabundance of watery juice.

The present method of canning is the process invented by a Frenchman named Francois Appert a little more than a hundred years ago, improved in detail and amplified in use by modern mechanical devices and equipment. The two principal points to be achieved are (1) the exclusion of all air from the can by hermetical sealing and (2) the destruction of all micro-organisms by sterilization--cooking the can at high temperature and high pressure. The details of the process vary with different foods and cannery methods. Some items are placed in the cans in a raw condition, others are first partially cooked. Some undergo two cookings in the can, being "vented" between cookings--i.e., the tops are pierced to allow the steam to escape, the holes being soldered over immediately thereafter. Many modern canneries achieve the same purpose by means of a steam-heated "exhaust box" which extracts part of the air in the filled cans before they are sent to the capping machines.

If only good grades of bright tin plate are used, the sterilization has been complete, and the can is air-tight, the food contents, whether meats, vegetables or fruit, will remain good and wholesome for an almost indefinite length of time.

Any imperfection in the can or damage to it, which admits even the smallest amount of air, will result in fermentation and decomposition and render the contents unfit for food, so care should be exercised in the handling of all canned goods. A similar result will ensue from imperfect sterilization--i.e., if the heat employed was not sufficient to sterilize every portion of the contents. Fermentation of any kind will tend to make the can bulge more or less. Consequently, if there is the slightest swelling of the can, either top, bottom or sides, send it back--never on any account sell or use such a can as it may be poisonous enough to kill. All canned goods are returnable for this cause, being guaranteed by the packer to the jobber and the jobber to the retailer.

The "swelling" is a reasonably sure test for all unopened canned goods except corn--which may be found sour inside a can in apparently normal condition.

The reason that jams and other sweet preserves maintain their wholesomeness without such precautions as required for the canning of meats, vegetables and unsweetened fruits, is that heavy syrup is not favorable to the growth of yeast, etc.

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The "biggest sellers" in canned goods in the United States to-day are in fish--salmon (a long way in the lead) and sardines; in fruit--peaches; in vegetables--tomatoes, corn and peas, twice as many cans of tomatoes being sold as of corn and five times as many as of peas.

Grocers should never sell a can of any meat or fish in the summer without advising the buyer to keep it on ice for a while before opening it. Meats, salmon, lobster, crabs and shrimps are disgusting to many people when taken out in a flabby and warm condition, but the simple precaution mentioned will give the fresh, firm appearance desired.

The last point in the use of canned goods--and a very important one--is the necessity of every consumer understanding that, as soon as a can is opened, all of the contents must be taken out and put in a china, glass, earthenware or similar receptacle, dish or plate--and covered, if held over after a meal. The very best and purest canned meats and fish are liable to generate poisonous ptomaines, if left standing in the can.

It may be added that ptomaine poison is not a special poison from canned goods only--it may be, and often is, generated in various items of home-cooked food if unduly exposed, or left long enough to permit decay to set in.

CANTALOUPE: a general title for several varieties of muskmelon, derived from Cantalupo, Italy, the place of their first cultivation in Europe. See MELONS.

CANVASBACK: one of the most famous of wild water-fowl. See DUCKS (Wild).

CAPELAN: a small fish very abundant along the shores of Newfoundland. It is principally used for bait in codfishing but some of the catch is dried for human consumption. The flesh is agreeable in flavor, somewhat resembling fine herring.

CAPERS: the flower buds of the caper bush, growing in countries along the Mediterranean. They are used as pickles and to add to sauces, etc.

The caper crop is gathered from June to September or October, the end of July giving the heaviest yield. After picking, they are carefully dried to avoid fermentation and then stored in barrels of vinegar, the latter being sometimes flavored with tarragon sprigs, elder flowers, cloves, peppercorns, etc.

During the winter following the gathering, the capers are graded by size by passing through sieves. The seven chief classifications are--"Nonpareil" (smallest), "Surfine," "Capucine," "Capote," "Fine," "Mi-fine," and "Commune" (largest). After grading, they are replaced in barrels of vinegar and thus preserved until sold. Before shipment, they are washed in vinegar of a standard of 12°, which renders them quite firm, and placed in barrels without vinegar, the finer qualities to be repacked in bottles, etc.

A fraud sometimes attempted is to mix with the capers a quantity of nasturtium berries, which resemble them in size and appearance.

CAPON: a male chicken castrated to increase its growth and weight. See CHICKEN.

CAPSICUM. There are many species of Capsicum, all native to the warm parts of America, Africa and Asia, and now cultivated in every part of the world. The small fruited types, generally the most pungent, are best known popularly as "Chilies," and the larger as "Peppers." "Chilies" are used whole in vinegars, pickles, etc., and to grind


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into cayenne pepper, and "Peppers" are eaten as a vegetable and ground into red pepper (see CHILI, PEPPER and PEPPERS. Green).

CAPUASSA: a yellow-fleshed, large-seeded, Brazilian fruit enclosed in a rough hard shell. European travelers have said in describing the crushed and diluted pulp that the resulting drink "is worth a voyage across the Atlantic."

CARAMBOLA (also called the Coromandel Gooseberry in India): a curiously formed fruit about the size of a large egg, with a thin, smooth, generally yellow, coat. Its flavor varies from sweet to acid so it is variously consumed,--raw, cooked, in chutneys, etc.

CARAMEL: a dark-brown substance obtained by heating either "ordinary" or "starch" sugar. It is formed also during the roasting of all materials containing sugar, such as malt (which see) and coffee. It is much used for coloring wines, spirits, soups and other liquids and for flavoring custards, milk, etc.

"Caramels" is the name given to a candy whose soft mucilaginous character is due to its large proportion of Glucose (see CANDY and GLUCOSE).

Caramel Cereal, used as a coffee substitute, consists chiefly of malted grain.

CARAWAY SEED: the highly aromatic seeds of a plant which grows wild in the meadows of Holland and Northern Germany, and is cultivated in many other countries, including the United States--especially California. They are employed in a variety of ways--as a culinary flavor, in confectionery, baking, etc., and in the perfumery and soap making industries.

The roots of the Caraway plant were at one time eaten as a vegetable, and the young and tender leaves still occasionally serve for flavoring soups, etc.

[Illustration: An illustration of a delicate plant with compound leaves and small clusters of flowers grouped in two bunches at the ends of its stems.]

CARBONATED WATERS: a wide class of refreshing refrigerant beverages, rendered sparkling by impregnating them with carbon-dioxide (carbonic acid gas) under pressure. The term does not include beverages in which the carbon-dioxide is produced by the natural process of fermentation. The carbon-dioxide is produced preferably by the use of bicarbonate of sodium, but also frequently from limestone, marble dust, etc., by the action on them of sulphuric or other acid. The gas is first washed with water and stored in a copper bell or gasometer, being thence pumped along with water into copper or gun-metal vessels lined with pure tin, being made to mingle with the water by agitation or other means. When the pressure inside the water reaches about 100 pounds to the square inch, it is ready to be bottled in syphons. A great variety of temperance beverages are made by putting a sufficient quantity of flavoring syrup in bottles and filling with Carbonated Water. Many spring waters carbonated by nature have important medicinal properties (see MINERAL WATERS).

CARDAMOM: the dark wrinkled triangular seeds of a spice plant, native to India. They possess an aromatic and agreeably pungent flavor and are used in cooking, especially in curries and soups, by confectioners, etc.

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[Illustration: A color illustration of a head of celery, accompanied by an inlaid cut of an unharvested celery plant.]

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CARDOON: a plant of the thistle family, somewhat resembling the Artichoke, but generally larger, some varieties attaining a height of eight to ten feet, with leaves often three feet or more in length, light green in color and covered with white down. It is grown chiefly for the stems and leaf mid-ribs of the young plant, which are thick, fleshy, tender and crisp if properly cultivated and blanched.

Cardoon is used in salads, stews, soups, etc., and as a vegetable, in the last-named case being served with various forms of dressing or with butter sauce, etc. Considerable quantities are imported from France to supplement the domestic product. In cooking, the stalk is cut into thin strips about five to six inches long, cooked in slightly salted water until tender, then freed from strings, etc., and set aside to become cold. If not properly prepared, it is dark in color and unpleasantly bitter.

The main root, which is thick, fleshy and pleasing in flavor, is also frequently prepared as a winter vegetable.

[Illustration: An illustration of an uprooted plant with long stalks and pointy-looking leaves.]

CARLSBAD. See article on table and medicinal MINERAL WATERS.

CARMINE: a red coloring obtained from the female cochineal, a small insect found chiefly along the Phœnician coast. It is used for culinary purposes, in the manufacture of syrup, sauces, etc., and in various other industries.

CAROB BEAN: the "Husks" of the Prodigal Son. See ST. JOHN'S BREAD.

CARP: a fresh water fish spending most of its time in muddy bottoms and banks. It is generally of bronze appearance and the larger specimens attain a weight of fifteen to eighteen pounds. There are many varieties, the three best known being the Buffalo or "Common," in season from the middle of July to October; the German, about half the size of the Buffalo and distinguished by its sides being bare of scales, in season from October to April; and the Salmon, a variety which by environment has attained a slight salmon tint and taste. The flesh of all except the Salmon is a firm white.

The German Carp are the descendants of fry imported from Germany, but they have lost some of the fine characteristics of the home fish.

CARRAGHEEN, IRISH MOSS, PEARL MOSS: a species of edible seaweed named after the town of Carragheen, near Waterford, Ireland, found on the coasts of the British Islands, the rocky shores of continental Europe and the Eastern shores of the Northern United States and Canada. Similar varieties abound also on other parts of the American coast line.

[Illustration: An illustration of a seaweed with delicately branching leaves.]

The Carragheen of domestic use is obtained principally from New Hampshire and Massachusetts, the harvest season there extending from May to September. After gathering, the plants are washed in salt water and spread on the beach to dry and bleach, the process being repeated several times.

As marketed, Carragheen is in pieces of from two to three inches to a foot in length, cartilaginous and flexible in texture, branching in shape, and in color from a


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reddish brown to straw color or white, varying with local differences in the plant and the extent of the bleaching.

The greater part of the supply is employed in the clarifying of beer. The remainder is retailed through druggists and grocers, etc., the best qualities packed in half pound and pound boxes.

To make a nutritious beverage, which is considered also a good demulcent for coughs, a scant ounce of Carragheen is placed in a quart to three pints of water, gently heated until the liquid is syrupy in consistence and then strained, milk and sugar or sugar and lemon juice being added to taste.

In the preparation of blanc-mange or jelly, a larger quantity is required. A good receipt is to soak a small cupful in cold water for about five minutes, then tie it in a cheese-cloth bag, place in a double-boiler with a quart of milk, add a little salt and cook for a half hour. When done, take the bag out, flavor the liquid with lemon or vanilla extract and pour into a mold or small cups, previously wet with cold water. When the jelly is set, it can be eaten with sugar and cream or fruit as desired.

CARROT: a root vegetable cultivated in both the United States and Europe, the small tender varieties for culinary purposes and the larger, later types for feeding cattle. It is one of our most wholesome vegetables and is consumed in a variety of ways--separately and in soups, stews, etc.

In cold storage, carrots have been held in barrels from November to the middle of July, but under other conditions they tend to heat and decay. If cold storage is not available, they are best stored on slat platforms, and covered lightly with sand. Good ventilation is an absolute necessity.

When purchasing carrots, see that they are firm to the touch and crisp when broken.

The juice of the red varieties is frequently employed on the farm to color butter.

[Illustration: A small illustration of a carrot, showing the root and leaves of the vegetable.]

CARTON: a pasteboard box for holding soaps, cereals or other goods.

CASEIN: the cheesy portion of the curd of milk, the protein constituent of milk. (See MILK.)

CASHEW NUT (See illustration in color page of TROPICAL FRUITS): a kidney shaped nut which develops pendant-fashion on the red or yellow "Cashew apple," the two constituting the fruit of a large evergreen shrub, native to the West Indies and widely grown in other tropical countries.

The nut, of greenish-brown color, rich in milky juice when fresh, and with a delicate almond flavor, is consumed raw, roasted and pickled. The whole raw nut should never be crushed by the hands or teeth as between its two shells is a thick liquid which is so caustic that it readily blisters the lips and skin. The acid disappears with heat, so the roasted nuts do not offer this objection.

The "apple" is seldom seen in this country, but it has a pleasing sub-acid flavor and is enjoyed locally.

The Cashew Nut is valuable in many branches of business, being used in the manufacture of oil, ink, dyes, mucilage, cosmetics, etc.

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CASSAREEP: the juice of the bitter Cassava or Manioc (which see) boiled to the consistence of thick syrup and flavored with spices. It is used as a basis for various sauces and as a culinary flavoring, principally in tropical countries. It is exported chiefly from British Guiana.

CASSAVA, Cassava Starch: starch obtained from the roots of the MANIOC (which see).

CASSEROLE: a porous dish of clay or earthenware, much used in French cooking. The heat penetrates it slowly and all the juices and flavors of the meats, etc., are retained.

CASSIA BARK: a variety of Cinnamon (which see).

CASSIA BUDS: the dried flower-buds of the tree which yields Cassia Bark, to which their flavoring is similar. In appearance they slightly resemble cloves. The Cassia tree does not bear buds until from fifteen to twenty years old.

CASTILE SOAP: a soap made of olive oil, also called Marseilles Soap. See SOAP.

CASTOR-OIL: an article of great commercial importance, made from the seeds of the Castor-Oil plant. In addition to its medicinal use, it is employed in the manufacture of some transparent toilet soaps, as a lubricating oil, in the arts, etc.

CATAWBA: one of the most celebrated of native American wines. It is a "white" wine, both still and sparkling, of fine flavor, originally produced from the Catawba grape, and now from their blending with other varieties, such as Delawares, etc.

The highest priced variety is the "sparkling"--the finer grades of which compare favorably with imported wines.

The sparkling variety should be served cold; the "still" at about the temperature of the room.

Some red Catawba is made, but in comparatively small quantity.

"Sweet Catawba" is a rich fortified wine.

CATCHUP: also called "Ketchup" and CATSUP (which see).

CATFISH. Two entirely different fish--one found in salt-water and the other in lakes and rivers--are known as "catfish." The flesh of the salt-water fish, which occasionally attains a weight of sixty pounds and is called the "Hogfish" in some parts, is very good in flavor, but the catch is nearly all cured, very little being marketed fresh.

The river variety is smaller and not particularly choice in flavor, but properly prepared, after the removal of its coarse brown skin, it is found quite as pleasing to the palate as many more highly rated fish. Catfish dinners are much esteemed along the Schuylkill River at Philadelphia.

CATNIP, or Catmint: a field plant growing wild throughout the United States. The leaves and young shoots--aromatic, pungent and more or less bitter--are used for


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seasoning and as a domestic remedy. The leaves are best while the plant is blooming. They may be preserved by drying a few days, being afterward kept in a dry place.

Everyone is familiar with the pleasure a cat finds in playing with catnip, and catnip-balls, containing a few pieces, are an article of regular sale.

CATSUP, Catchup, Ketchup: a word derived from the name of an East Indian pickle, which was formerly applied specifically to the boiled spiced juice from salted mushrooms, but is now freely attached to various sauces (sold both bottled and in bulk) which consist of the pulp--boiled, strained and seasoned--of various fruits, as tomatoes, green walnuts, etc.

CAULIFLOWER: a variety of cabbage. It has been styled "cabbage with a college education," for its characteristics are the result of careful cultivation--the flower buds and stalks having been exaggerated by seed selection, etc., into a compact white mass which constitutes the vegetable proper, instead of the leaves as in other varieties of cabbage. In addition to its use fresh-boiled, etc., great quantities are consumed as a pickle.

The local Eastern crop is supplemented by large shipments from both France and California.

Cauliflower may be kept in any way suitable for cabbage (which see).

[Illustration: An illustration of a whole cauliflower plant, including the roots.]

CAVIAR: the salted roe of various large fish of the sturgeon family. Nearly all the world's supply now comes from the Caspian Sea.

The finest quality caviar is that from the Beluga, a Russian word meaning "Great White Sturgeon," the largest of all sturgeons, which grows to a length of twelve or fourteen feet and sometimes weighs considerably more than a ton--a single cowfish of that size giving as much as 360 pounds of caviar. These very big fish are becoming more scarce every year and the average Beluga now caught is much smaller.

One hears and reads much of "Astrakhan Caviar"--yet there are no fisheries at Astrakhan (Russia). The name has clung because the City of Astrakhan is the greatest shipping place for caviar, largely via Germany.

[Illustration: An illustration of five men on a beach standing next to a large dead fish.]

Again, many people speak of "German Caviar," yet none of the small German Caviar product is exported--the impression arises from the fact that the Russian export trade is carried on principally by German firms with Hamburg as headquarters. London and Paris are both "outside markets," drawing their daily and weekly supplies from the Hamburg houses--but all the caviar they receive is Russian caviar.

After the fish has been killed, the roe is separated from the skin and fine tissues which envelop it by gently rubbing through a sieve. For "fresh," i.e., mildly salted,


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caviar, for which only roe in the best possible condition is suitable, it is then salted in the proportion of two to six pounds to each hundred pounds of roe, drained and put up in air-tight tin packages or glass jars.

Roe in which the eggs are too soft or too far ripened for "fresh" grades, is cured with 10% of salt and packed in barrels for export, to be later repacked and cooked in tins for retail handling. This is the sandwich and canapé caviar of ordinary use.

"Pressed Caviar" is a peculiarly Russian variety of which very little is exported.

The size of the egg or grain varies from very small to that of peas. The color is generally black but may be also any one of various shades of yellow, grey, dark green and brown. The real test of caviar is its flavor and this is as often found in the small as in the large grain and in the black as in any other color, but the large eggs and the grey and yellow or "gold" colors are the most rare and therefore the most expensive. The gold color is considered the choicest in Russia, the greyish in Germany.

There is very little caviar produced in North America to-day, uncontrolled slaughter of the fish for many years having rendered it so scarce that it hardly pays to hunt it. Formerly, after supplying home markets, a considerable quantity of American caviar was shipped to Europe for sale as medium and coarse grades.

Caviar in America is generally eaten on bread or toast with oil, lemon juice or vinegar and various garnishes. It is also occasionally served on ice as a special course at luncheon and dinner parties.

CAYENNE: a red pepper, named after Cayenne, a city of French Guiana.

CELERIAC: a kind of turnip-rooted celery. It is good for salads, the root being boiled and sliced cold for mixing with other ingredients.

CELERY: as we know it, is the cultivated variety of a plant of the parsley family, which is found wild in many parts of both this country and Europe. It is grown in large quantities in divers latitudes--New York, Michigan, Ohio, Florida, California and Bermuda being the largest producers. It was formerly obtainable only at certain seasons, but the finer grades are now on sale all the year round.

Celery requires constant care and cultivation, and rich moist soft soil of saline character to attain its best qualities. For early celery, the seed is planted in hot-houses and the small plants are set out as soon as the frost leaves the ground. For late celery, the seed is sown in the open ground. The whiteness of the stalks is obtained by "banking" earth or other material up along the rows of plants or putting boards alongside for the same purpose. Some growers raise three crops each season, following each lot by immediately setting out the small plants for the next.

[Illustration: An illustration of several people working in a field to prop up long boards between rows of vegetables.]

Every part of the celery plant can be used to advantage. The stalks and heart are served in a variety of ways--plain raw, with various fillings, in salads, cooked in numerous ways, etc. The outside stalks may be cut in pieces and stewed. The trimmings are excellent for


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flavoring broths, etc. The seeds are used for celery salt and many pickles and seasonings.

Celery from Michigan and New York State is best from July 15 to December 1 or later; California ships principally from Thanksgiving to March 1; Florida from February 15 to May 1 and Bermuda from April 15 to the middle of June.

To keep in the best condition, celery should be wrapped in paper and held in a cool place. In refrigerated cooling rooms, it can be kept in good condition from one to two months. It may also be stored in cool cellars if packed just as taken from the ground, without either washing or trimming, heads up in long deep boxes and filled around the roots with sand, which should occasionally be moistened.

[Illustration: An illustration of two girls standing in a field, holding hoes. A barn can be seen faroff in the background.]

CENTRIFUGAL MACHINE: an apparatus used in many different industries, chiefly for the extraction of moisture--to remove the syrup from sugar, to extract the honey from honey-comb, to dry yarn, cloth, etc. The process is, essentially, placing the substance or material in a perforated basket or case which is revolved with great rapidity, the result being that the moisture is expelled from the basket and caught in the receptacle enclosing it.

CèPES. See MUSHROOMS.

CEREALS. Agriculturally speaking, the term "cereals" refers to all species of "grasses" which bear grain, the most important being wheat, corn, rye, oats, rice and barley. The world's huge crop of wheat, for example, comes under this classification. From the standpoint of the grocer and the average consumer though, the term applies specifically to preparations of grains intended for table use--such as oatmeal and the great variety of so-called "breakfast foods."

The subsiding of the temporary popularity which a multitude of cereal preparations and combinations enjoyed a few years ago, banished into oblivion a long list of "breakfast foods," but a number of those which remained by virtue of proved merit and consistent publicity have grown steadily in public esteem, and the line is well worthy of attention, for it is clean and easy to handle, being practically all package goods, and quite profitable, if the proper kinds are selected.

Package cereals may be divided into three main classes: (1) crushed raw, (2) partly cooked and (3) malted. In the last named, part of the starch is converted into maltose and dextrin (forms of sugar--see article on GLUCOSE) by mixing the ground grain and malt and keeping it for a time at the proper temperature, then passing the mixture through hot rollers and drying.

It does not, however, pay to handle this line unless there is a fair margin of profit. Nor should too many kinds, nor too large quantities be stocked, as if held for a long time weevils are liable to get in and spoil the goods.

The more general use of the double-boiler has improved the preparation of cereals, preventing loss by burning and scorching, but in the average household the raw


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or semi-cooked varieties are not sufficiently cooked before serving. Thorough cooking increases their food value by making them more readily digestible. The "fireless cooker" is the ideal utensil for this purpose.

Cereals should always be kept in a dry, cool place.

CERIMAN (sometimes called the "False Bread-fruit"): a sub-tropical fruit, varying from cone to banana shape and often reaching a length of fourteen inches. The flesh is excellent in flavor and delightfully aromatic. The husky skin is tender and easily removed.

[Illustration: An illustration of several conelike fruits, one of which is surrounded by a curved leaf or petal.]

CERVELAT: a popular variety of smoked sausage. See general article on SAUSAGES.

CETTE WINES: "Burgundy," "Port," "Vermouth," etc., exported from Cette, an important city on the French Mediterranean coast and the principal shipping point for the Department of Hérault. Hérault produces nearly one-tenth of the total French wine supply, but only a comparatively small quantity is exported, the bulk being retained for domestic consumption.

CHAMOIS SKIN, or LEATHER, Shammy: used for polishing, is, ordinarily, goat or sheep skin made soft and pliable by treatment with oil. It takes its name from the original use of the skin of the Chamois, a goat-like antelope, of mountainous parts of Europe and Western Asia. To clean "shammy," use warm water, soap and a little soda, rubbing the soap well in. Washing in plain water will harden it.

CHAMPAGNE. Contrary to general impression, Champagne is made from fine varieties of black and red grapes. Its "white" color is due to the fact that the grapes are pressed before the skins have had a chance to color the juice.

The grapes are sorted immediately after gathering and taken at once to the press-house where they are again critically inspected during the weighing and then, with the least possible delay, pressed to separate the juice from the pulp.

The products of the first three pressings become first class wines. The subsequent pressings produce only an inferior article, generally used for local consumption.

This virgin wine is left standing in large vats to await fermentation--the process being instigated by the micro-organisms ("wild" yeast cells) contained in the "bloom" of the grape and carried into the juice when pressing. In fermentation, the natural sugar of the grape juice is transformed into alcohol and carbon-dioxide (gas). The latter escaping by the bunghole, produces the stage commonly called "boiling."

As the weather becomes cold, the ferments gradually lessen their activity until the wine finally becomes clear and is in condition to be separated from its lees.

With the approach of the following spring comes the most critical operation--the one which tests the experience and ability of the wine merchant--the blending of


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the crude wines to suit the tastes of his clienteles in various countries. When the desired result has been obtained, the "cuvée" is said to have been formed and is ready for bottling.

A certain amount of cane-sugar is added to the wine and it is then put into new and carefully cleansed bottles, which are corked as filled and taken at once to the cellars.

The return of spring again sets the ferments in action, transforming any natural sugar still left in the wine from the previous fall--and also the cane-sugar added--into alcohol and carbon-dioxide--but this time the gas cannot escape and instead mingles with the liquid, producing the "sparkle" for which champagne is famous.

But the development of the wine is not yet completed, for this last fermentation leaves a deposit or sediment to be got rid of. To accomplish this, the bottles are held in racks, head downwards at an angle of 70°, for three months or longer while the deposit slowly descends and collects on the corks. Every day during the entire period a specially trained cellarman gives each bottle a slight twisting motion to assist its descent.

When all the sediment has collected on the corks, the cellarman takes each bottle separately and removes the cork, or undoes the iron clasp holding it, according to the method employed, and the rush of the carbonate gas forces the deposit out with a loud report. The wine is thus left absolutely clear and sparkling.

By the most modern process, the necks of the bottles, when ready for the extraction of the sediment, are placed to a depth of about three inches in a refrigerating bath to congeal the deposit and thus facilitate its expulsion.

The second fermentation has removed all taste of sugar, and for a perfectly "dry" wine, the cellarman refills the empty space in the neck of the bottle, left by the withdrawal of the sediment, with unsweetened "dosage" and recorks the bottle as it is. Nearly all the champagne sold is though sweetened more or less--the extent varying with the preferences of the different countries to which it is to be shipped--and consequently the dosage usually consists of sugar dissolved in "champagne" brandy and variously flavored. A keen palate can often clearly detect the flavors of the dosage--as of apricots or other fruits.

The bottles go next to underground wine cellars to mature. The cellars or "caves" at Reims consist of miles of tunnels cut in and through old chalk pits. The length of time required to attain proper maturity depends to a certain extent on the quality and characteristics of each year's vintage. An average of eight years is generally considered sufficient.

It is a matter of common knowledge that many of the stronger "still" wines are improved by long life in the bottles, but that a good vintage champagne will improve up to the tenth year is not generally known.

The "dryer" the wine, the more important becomes the time set apart for its aging, and the finer the discrimination possible in comparing the merits of different vintages. In heavily sweetened champagnes, the "sharpness" of immature wine or the mediocrity of a poor vintage may be obscured to a very considerable extent by the sugar flavor.

An easy test for age in champagne is found in the corks extracted. If the end of the "stem" swells out to approximately the same dimensions as the head of the cork, you may be sure the wine has not been very long in the bottle. If it swells only moderately, it has been to that extent better matured. If it proves to be lacking entirely in


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[Illustration: An illustration of four farmers standing in a field, which stretches out to some hills far away in the distance.]




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resiliency and retains the straight up and down shape of the inside of the bottle's neck, it has been aged sufficiently for any connoisseur's requirements.

This test applies only to champagne and similar sparkling wines,--not at all to old ports or Rhine wines, or any other wines held longer than ten years to mature, as in such cases new corks are generally substituted about every ten years.

Most of the champagne consumed in Russia, Germany and other countries of Northern Europe is heavily sweetened. An 18 to 20 per cent syrup addition was formerly common in that shipped to Russia and 14 to 16 per cent in that for Germany. About 12% was quite common in France itself. The champagne consumed in those countries is not as sweet as formerly, but it would still be considered excessively so by English and American connoisseurs.

"Sec" or "dry" champagne is wine with only a comparatively little sweetening--generally from 3 to 5 per cent. "Extra dry" has still less. "Brut," which means "natural" or "unsweetened," signifies champagne without any sweetening or, as generally, with only the minimum amount.

In Europe, the terms "sec" and "brut" serve to distinguish the wines so labelled from the heavily syrupped types mentioned, but as very little really sweet champagne is ever seen in this country (practically all of the importations being of the "sec," "extra sec" and "brut" types), "sec" has come to mean "sweet" to American consumers. It is "dry" in comparison with the sweet European champagne, but it is "sweet" in comparison with the still dryer "brut."

A small quantity of champagne sweeter than "sec," though not nearly as sweet as much of that consumed in Northern Europe, is imported and sold here under special trade titles, but the demand for it is comparatively small. "Sec" is probably the typical American taste, being generally preferred both to sweeter and dryer types.

It is necessary, however, to confine oneself to generalities in discussing this subject, as both wines and firm policies vary considerably. It is impossible to give a conclusive idea of the sweetness of different cuvées by naming the percentage of syrup added, as different quantities may be required to obtain the same degree of sweetness--the same amount of syrup added to a fine mellow wine would make a much sweeter article than if added to a young sharp wine. And, as there is no absolute standard of definition for "sec" or "brut," it may happen that one firm's "brut" is sweeter than another's "sec."

Another classification, which does not so generally affect the average consumer, but is understood by the connoisseur, is into non-Mousseux, not effervescent (seldom seen); Crémant, moderately sparkling; Mousseux, sufficiently effervescent to eject the cork with an audible report, and Grand Mousseux, excessively effervescent.

It is very important that champagne should be kept in a dark cellar where the temperature is cool and even. If exposed to light and variable temperature, it will lose much of both effervescence and flavor. The bottles should be laid on their sides, inclined slightly downwards so that the wine keeps the cork moist. If it has been shipped a considerable distance, it should be allowed to rest a few days before serving.

Champagne should be drunk cold, but the cooling process should be gradual--it is detrimental to shake it or turn it violently in the cooler, as is so frequently done.

Several styles of wine glasses are used for serving champagne. The most desirable are those which show the "sparkle" best and retain it the longest. The "hollow-stem" glass is excellent by both these standards. It is important that the glasses be perfectly dry before pouring the wine into them--a damp glass kills much of the sparkle.

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As the sale of imported champagne is in this country largely directed by advertising, is not generally advisable to stock heavily any brand with which the public is not thoroughly familiar. The French government has restricted the use of the title "champagne" to wine made within a certain clearly defined area, covering nearly all of the Department of Marne--which includes, among others, the cantons of Avize, Ay, Chalons, épernay and Reims--and a few communes in the Department of Aisné.

There are several American "champagnes" now made which are excellent in quality and show a good profit to the retailer. See AMERICAN WINES.

CHAMPIGON: the French name for Mushroom (which see).

CHARD, Swiss Chard, Leaf-Beet: a variety of beet which is grown only for its leaves and stalks, the latter, and also the leaf midribs of some types, being cooked and served in any way suitable for Asparagus. The leaves are prepared as "greens" or may be chopped up, mixed with cream and served with the stalks.

Swiss Chard is a variety with especially large stalks, leaves and midribs.

The term "Chard" is also applied to the blanched stalks, midribs, etc., of the artichoke, cardoon and several other plants.

[Illustration: An illustration of a plant with rounded leaves growing from the ground.]

CHARLOTTE. See list of Culinary Terms in APPENDIX.

CHARTREUSE: a famous liqueur (see Color Page of LIQUEURS) originally made by monks of La Grande Chartreuse, France. After the exclusion of the Carthusian monks from France, they retired to Spain near Tarragona and there, claiming the process as still their exclusive secret, make a liqueur branded "Liqueur des Pères Chartreux." It contains the aromatic principles of a great variety of fruits, spices and herbs and is marketed in three colors--green, yellow and white.

See also "Chartreuse" in Culinary Terms in APPENDIX.

[Illustration: An illustration of two men working in a factory; one of the men is emptying a bucket into a machine.]

CHEESE: the product obtained by coagulating the casein of milk by means of rennet or acids, with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasonings. The casein is usually coagulated with rennet, the curd being then separated from the whey and pressed in suitable molds. By act of Congress, approved June 6, 1896, cheese may contain additional harmless coloring matter--this generally consists of annatto or other colors from vegetable sources.

Whole-milk or full-cream cheese is made from milk from which no portion of the fat has been removed. U. S. Standard whole-milk cheese or full-cream cheese is cheese


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containing in the water-free substance not less than fifty (50) per cent of butter fat.

Cream cheese is made from milk and cream, or milk containing not less than six (6) per cent of fat.

Skim-milk cheese is made from milk from which part of the fat has been removed.

Cheeses are commonly graded as Special, Fancy, Good, Prime, Common, etc.

Italy and Switzerland supply the greater part of the cheese imported. Next come Holland and France.

As an article of food, cheese is very nutritious. When eaten in quantities it burdens the digestive organs, but in small amounts, as a condiment, it stimulates and aids the digestion of rich foods and dessert. When taken after eating, and especially when rich and old, it is particularly efficacious in that respect by powerfully promoting the secretion of saliva and gastric juice.

In the United States, cheese making has been transferred bodily from the realm of domestic arts to that of the manufacturer, and farm-made cheeses are hard to find anywhere. New York and Wisconsin together produce three-quarters of the entire output of the country. Next in order are Ohio, Illinois, Michigan and Pennsylvania.

[Illustration: An illustration of a man in a room filled with tubs of various sizes.]

More than nine-tenths of the cheese made is of the familiar standard copied after the English Cheddar. The annual consumption here though is only 3 lbs. per capita, which shows how little its highly nutritious value is appreciated.

In manufacture, the milk is generally warmed in large vats to a temperature of not less than 84° Fahr. The rennet, or other coagulative mixture, is then added, a pint of rennet being sufficient to turn from 2000 to 3000 quarts of milk. As the curd forms, the temperature is raised to nearly 100°, until the whole mass of curd separates from the whey. The latter is then drawn off by cutting the curd across both ways, and passing wired paddles or curd-knives through it. After the whey has been removed, the curd is allowed to "mat" or ferment slightly and it is then broken up, salted, formed and pressed. Ten days or so later, the cheese is rubbed to remove any mold, and perhaps paraffined to prevent such formation later. It is then kept until properly ripened for market.

The storing of newly made cheese is the next point that engages the attention of the maker and wholesale dealer. The same principles which influence the maturing or ripening of fermented liquors also operate here. A cool cellar, neither damp nor yet too dry, which is uninfluenced by changes of weather or season, is commonly regarded as best for the purpose. The temperature should not be permitted to exceed 50° to 56° Fahr. at any time--an average of about 45° is preferable when it can be maintained. A place exposed to sudden changes of temperature is as unfit for storing cheese as it is for storing beer. Roquefort, the highest grade of highly ripened cheese, owes much of its perfection to the dry caves in which it is stored and ripened.

The care of cheese in the store is often neglected. In warm weather, it should be kept in a cool, dry place, and frequently inspected and turned over in the boxes. If


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a cheese shows signs of swelling, it should be pierced with a wire to give vent to the gas, which can then be expelled by gentle pressure on the swollen portion. All mold or mites on the top of the cheese should be swept or neatly scraped off and the surface rubbed with a little sweet oil or strong brine. For maggots or "jumpers," the remedy is to clean the affected parts and keep the cheese well dusted with rice flour. If the loose sheets or plates which lie on the top and bottom of the cheese are found to be damp, they should be replaced by clean, dry ones.

The cut cheese can be kept moist by pressing lightly buttered pieces of parchment firmly on the cut surfaces or by buttering them. There will also be less tendency towards dryness, and therefore less shrinkage, if each exposed surface is cut from alternately. The fresh appearance of the cheese in general can be retained by wiping the outside each day with a damp cloth, soaked in salt water.

For the important part played by bacteria, etc., in the ripening of cheese, see article on BACTERIA.

There are countless varieties of cheese, but those described in the following list may be taken as representative of all popular types. Camembert, Cheddar, Cream, Edam, Limburger, Neufchatel, Pineapple and Swiss are depicted in the two color pages of CHEESE--(1) the frontispiece, and (2) facing page 118.

APPENZELL: made either of skim or whole-milk, in Appenzell, Switzerland. It is very similar to Emmenthaler (which see).

BRANDIED: strong old cheese, ground or rolled fine, and mixed with brandy. A full-cream cheese, which has become a little over-ripe, is pared and then rolled into a smooth dough with a rolling pin. Layers of this dough, from a half inch to an inch thick, are put in an earthen crock, and good brandy is poured over each layer. When the crock is nearly full, the cheese is covered with several thicknesses of oiled muslin, and, during the first few weeks, a little brandy is poured on top at regular intervals. It will improve with years.

BRIE: a soft French cheese, treated and ripened in much the same way as Camembert (which see).

CACIOCAVALLO: an Italian cheese, generally of roundish-beet shape and about three pounds in weight, which after making and salting is filled into sausage skins and lightly smoked. It is sometimes eaten fresh, but is more often stored for several months and then grated to use as a flavoring for soups and as an addition to macaroni and similar pastes.

CAERPHILLY: a hard Welsh cheese generally weighing about eight pounds, made from very sweet whole milk.

CAMEMBERT: a soft, rich cheese, made in the former province of Normandy, France, the best now coming from the districts of Orne and Calvados. It is generally put up in round wooden boxes or tins and is marketed in May and November. It is made from two separate curds, the morning and the evening, and the strength of the rennet mixture employed is varied with the weather, being much stronger for the winter than for the summer product. When the first curd is ready, it is filled into molds with great care so as not to break up the mass, but to fill each round hoop or form with one motion. These filled forms are placed on straw mats, which facilitate drainage and add to the agreeable appearance of the finished cheese. The morning's curd will have sunk considerably by the time the evening's curd is ready, and the latter, which may be


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a little richer, is added to it, the top of the under layer being slightly disturbed or scored to facilitate joining. On the second day, the cheeses, having hardened sufficiently to be turned, are slightly salted on the surface and set on fresh mats to remain till they are hard enough to be removed from the frames. In the drying room, where they rest for four days, the first or white fungus or mold appears--this is essential to their flavor and ripening and is succeeded after about a week by the fine blue mold characteristic of the fully developed cheese. When the condition of the blue mold is fully established, the cheeses are removed to the curing room, where they are kept at a temperature under 60° Fahr. until ready for market.

More Camembert cheese would be used if the ordinary consumer knew how to handle it. At dinner parties or hotels it is easy to dispose of an entire cheese at one meal, but the provident housewife hardly likes to see three-quarters of it dry up or run away because the family is small or the cheese is only appreciated by the head of the house--or whichever sex.

Keep your Camembert cheese under a large inverted finger bowl--you can find no better receptacle.

If kept in a cool place, the cheese naturally stiffens. If it is fresh and not shrunken it will always be soft if held for a few hours in a warm room.

In cutting for the first time, cut a section as shown in Figure 1 below, and then push the two sides of the cheese together as in Figure 2--the rind will thus continue to protect it. At the second meal, cut through crosswise and at the end of the meal push the parts together (Figure 3), so that the four quarter-sections again make a circle, exercising a little care in pasting the side joints. This process may be repeated as often as necessary, but it is to be hoped that the cheese will be sufficiently appreciated to be consumed within four meals.

[Illustration: Three illustrations of a wheel of cheese, labeled 1, 2, and 3. Each cheese wheel is marked with solid and/or broken lines.]

CHEDDAR: which takes its name from the village of Cheddar, England, the original place of manufacture, is, from the standpoint of quantity consumed, one of the most important of all cheeses. It is generally of pale color and agreeable nutty flavor, but the title, as now employed, applies to the essential process of manufacture rather than to any one type, "Cheddar" being sold in many styles, shapes and sizes.

All Cheddar is made from sweet milk and a distinctive feature of its manufacture is the development of the maximum quantity of acid obtainable in the whey without injuring the texture of the cheese--but the milk used may be either whole, partly skimmed or skimmed, and the cheeses may be white or colored yellow and may be marketed mild and fresh or thoroughly ripened. Those of whole milk are known as "full cream," others as "part skim" or "skim." The cylindrical shape is the most popular for the large cheeses.

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CHESHIRE: is made from whole milk. It resembles Cheddar but is of stronger flavor. In England, Cheshire cheeses weigh up to as high as 150 or 200 pounds, but in this country they range from 20 to 70 pounds, generally in cylindrical shape. From eight to ten months is required for ripening.

COLHOMMIER: a small Brie cheese five to six inches in diameter and one inch in thickness, weighing about one pound.

COTTAGE, also called "Dutch Cheese" and "Smier-Kase": a sour milk cheese extensively made and consumed here, sold both in bulk and wrapped in tin-foil. The curd is broken up and held at about 100° Fahr. until sufficiently firm, the whey next being drained off and the curd placed under moderate pressure for some time. If to be held long, it is packed in tubs and placed in cold storage to prevent ripening. For eating, it is generally moistened with milk or cream.

COTTENHAM: a rich English cheese, in flavor and consistence quite similar to Stilton, but flatter and broader in shape.

CREAM: is made in several ways, the two chief varieties of American manufacture being (1) sweet cream thickened with rennet or by souring, drained and salted; and (2) cream curdled with rennet, broken up to allow part of the whey to escape, then mixed or worked almost to a paste, molded into pieces weighing two to four ounces, wrapped in parchment paper and tin-foil and placed on the market fresh (without any curing). The second style is manufactured here on a very large scale.

There are also a number of French Cream and "Double Cream" cheeses, of which Neufchatel and Gervais are the best known examples.

DEVONSHIRE CREAM: is, essentially, cooked cream. The cream is allowed to rise on the milk for several hours, then the milk and cream (still together) are scalded and set aside to permit the cream layer to harden. The latter is then put in small molds and set on straw mats to drain. It is ready for market without further preparation as soon as it is hard enough to retain its shape.

D'ISIGNY: a soft, creamy American cheese, bearing a close resemblance to imported Brie, but made by a process similar to that for Camembert and put up in Camembert shape, though a little larger--about 1 1/2 inches thick and 6 inches across, wrapped in paper and weighing about a pound.

DORSET: resembles Stilton in character and manufacture. It takes its name from Dorsetshire, England.

DOUBLE GLOUCESTER. See GLOUCESTER.

DUNLOP: a rich, white and buttery cheese, resembling Cheddar, made in round forms of from thirty to sixty pounds. It was formerly the national cheese of Scotland, but has been practically superseded in that country by Cheddar.

DUTCH CHEESE: a general name for Edam, Gouda and Cottage Cheese (which see).

EDAM: a highly salted, red, round cannonball cheese, made in Edam, Holland, and its vicinity, principally on farms. The curd is pressed in molds--sometimes of metal, but usually of wood, cup shaped and round bottomed, with similar shaped tops to complete the spherical form--going next for a few days to "salting" cups of similar shape. In the curing room, the cheeses are placed on shelves with holes in them to prevent them rolling off, and are turned and rubbed each day. At the end of a month they


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are washed, dried and rubbed with flaxseed oil till they shine and are then ready to be loaded into carts--which are generally dragged by dogs to the market town.

The red color of the outside skin is obtainable by carmine or a weak solution of litmus and Berlin red.

The shells of Edam or Pineapple cheese are useful for serving macaroni. Heat the shell in a moderate oven and pour in the (cooked) macaroni. If the macaroni is to be browned, set the filled shell in the oven again--this will, however, destroy the shell after three or four times.

EMMENTHALER (commonly called Swiss Cheese, or Schweitzer): a rennet cheese made from whole milk, of mild rather sweet flavor and generally distinguished by holes or "eyes" of various sizes and frequency. It was originally made in Emmenthal, Switzerland, and that country is still a large exporter in spite of the fact that similar cheese is now manufactured in nearly every country. The French product is known, both in France and by export, as Gruyère. That made here is known as "Domestic Swiss."

The cheeses are often very large--from 60 to 220 pounds each, sometimes in blocks about twenty-eight inches or so long and eight inches square, but generally circular, the larger ranging up to four feet in diameter and six inches in thickness.

The genuine Emmenthaler, when exported, is never less than four months old. It keeps, under favorable conditions, for many years. It should be nutty in taste, and rather dry, but tender. The "holes" or "eyes," though generally characteristic, are not necessary to its quality, for many good Swiss cheeses are "blind," as dealers describe them.

ENGLISH DAIRY: a very hard cheese, prepared in about the same way as Cheddar, but cooked for a longer time. It is made quite extensively here, principally for culinary purposes.

GEDORT: a Norwegian cheese, small in size and solid in form, wrapped in foil.

GERVAIS: a French cheese made from a mixture of whole milk and cream. It is very lightly cured and is generally consumed fresh.

GLOUCESTER ("single" and "double"): is mild, somewhat buttery and not friable. It comes in large, round, flat forms. "Single Gloucester" is made from milk deprived of part of its cream. "Double Gloucester" contains all the cream.

GORGONZOLA: a rich cream cheese, akin to Roquefort and made in a somewhat similar manner, but milder in flavor and cheaper, produced in the mountain villages of Italy. The clayey outside surface of the whole cheese is a mixture of gypsum, tallow, etc., and is designed to aid in preserving it. Well-made Gorgonzola can be kept in good condition for a year or longer.

GOUDA: a Holland cheese made from whole or partly skimmed milk, coagulated with rennet and colored with saffron. It is pressed in round molds and weighs from ten to forty-five pounds. As marketed, each cheese is contained in a bladder or other covering of animal tissue.

GRATED CHEESE: any hard cheese grated for use with macaroni or other appropriate dishes. See also PARMESAN.

GREEN CHEESE. See SAGE CHEESE.

GRUYèRE: the French make of "Swiss Cheese." See EMMENTHALER.

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[Illustration: A color illustration of four different cheeses, each labeled with a number.]

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[Illustration: A storeyard full of cloth-covered stacks of cheeses. A number of people wander among the stacks, inspecting the cheese.]

[Illustration: A number of people wander among cloth-covered stacks of cheeses. Two of them are carrying a large pile of cheese between them on a tray.]

THE CHEESE MARKET AT ALKMAAR--the most important distributing point in North Holland for the round cheeses known in America as "Edam." The market is held every Friday, the cheeses being brought into town in great quantities, by boat and wagon, from the dairies of the surrounding districts. Before shipping, they are colored red or a brighter yellow, generally the former.

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[Illustration: A room full of cheeses being pressed between boards. A man can be seen bending over the cheeses at the far end.]

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KOSHER: a cheese made especially for Jewish trade. Its manufacture resembles that of Limburger, but it is eaten fresh.

KOSHER GOUDA: made for Jewish trade and bearing a special stamp for identification. It resembles Gouda, but has no bladder covering and is smaller--about 8 1/2 inches in diameter and three inches thick, weighing four to six pounds.

LIMBURGER: was originated in the town of Limburger, Belgium, but little is imported nowadays as that of domestic manufacture is fully equal in quality to the European and is made at a cost of less than half that of the imported article. Literally thousands of tons of Limburger are now produced here every season--principally in the States of New York and Wisconsin and chiefly for consumption by our German-American population.

The process of manufacture in its first stages does not differ from the usual method of cheese making, except that a lower temperature than for most varieties is kept while the curd is forming, the animal heat alone in summer being often high enough. Great care is taken to use pure milk, free from taint, and cleanliness is requisite in every stage of the making. Upon the curd being formed, it is slowly and carefully cut into square pieces the size of dice, careful handling being necessary to avoid breaking the butter globules upon which the richness of the cheese depends. It is next slightly scalded and stirred, and most of the whey drawn off, then, without being salted, it is dipped out in perforated wooden boxes or molds, about five inches square, and left to drain without any pressure being applied. In a few hours the packages are carried into the curing cellar and placed edgeways on shelves, like bricks set to dry. Every day thereafter they are rolled in salt and replaced when they have absorbed enough. They are also turned almost every day, and the slimy moisture which exudes is rubbed evenly over the surface, serving the double purpose of keeping the cheese moist and closing all cracks in which flies might lay their eggs. This outside moisture decomposes while the cheese ripens, and being composed chiefly of albumen, like fresh meats, etc., the same results follow its decomposition, and the "Limburger odor" is developed--which never forsakes it and sticks closer than a brother to all who touch or eat it. After eight or ten weeks it is packed in paper and tin-foil, and is ready for market--in consistence, contents and nourishment the richest cheese that can be made, but to the uninitiated a malicious and premeditated outrage upon the organ of smell!

LIPTAU: a Bohemian cheese, made from goat's milk and usually heightened with red pepper or other condiments. It generally comes in small tin-foil packages, is rather greasy and has a sharp taste.

MENAUTA: a rich soft French cheese, imported generally in small round tins.

NEUFCHATEL: a soft French cream cheese, sold in tin-foil cylinders about three and[unclear] a half inches long and weighing about five or six ounces.

PARMESAN: a hard Italian variety, used in grated form. It is made from skimmed[unclear] milk, and hardened by slow heat. The rennet is added to the milk at about 120° [GAP IN TEXT. Type: . Extent: several words] and after about an hour the curdling milk is set on a slow fire and heated to [GAP IN TEXT. Type: . Extent: several words] 150°, when the curd separates into small lumps. A few pinches of saffron are [GAP IN TEXT. Type: . Extent: several words] in to produce the desired color. About a fortnight later, the outer crust is cut [GAP IN TEXT. Type: . Extent: several words] the new surface is varnished with linseed oil, one side being painted red. [GAP IN TEXT. Type: . Extent: several words]


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cheese is an excellent accompaniment for macaroni and similar pastes and is frequently added to soups, etc.

PINEAPPLE: a hard, highly colored cheese, made in various sizes and so named because the curd is pressed in pineapple shape. The diamond-shaped ridges are caused by the cord nets in which the cheese is hung up to cure. It resembles Cheddar in manufacture except that it is cooked much harder.

PONT L'éVèQUE: a soft French cheese, about 4 1/2 inches square and 1 1/4 inches thick.

PORT DU SALUT: a French cheese, seven to ten inches in diameter, with firm, tough rind but soft homogeneous interior.

POTTED CHEESE: a domestic cheese generally made by grinding well ripened cheese very fine, mixing it with butter, condiments and brandy or other spirits, etc., and putting up in small porcelain jars. See also BRANDIED CHEESE.

PROVOLE: a round or oval Italian cheese, weighing from four to six pounds, and resembling "Caciocavallo." Smaller cheeses, about two pounds each, are styled Provoloni.

ROQUEFORT: a famous cheese, named after the French village of Roquefort, where great herds of the sheep that supply the milk are pastured on an immense plain of rich velvet-like herbage, which is stringently protected by both law and custom. Remarkable care and skill are employed in its manufacture. The herbage is supplemented by a diet of prepared food; the water supplied to the herds is whitened with barley flour and the yield of milk is stimulated in every possible way, even to beating the udders with the hands after milking.

There are many thousands of these sheep and very picturesque are the milking hours, morning and evening, when the army of pail-bearing maidens hurry over the fields, each in search of a favorite animal.

Every morning, in the farmhouse, the milk is skimmed, strained, warmed almost to the boiling point, emptied into enormous pans, stirred well with willow sticks, a portion of rennet added, and then covered and left to gather into curds--which an hour or so afterwards are cut up into pieces about the size of walnuts. Half a dozen other operations follow, then comes the "moldy bread" process, which produces the special characteristics of Roquefort.

The bread used is made of the finest wheat, or of winter barley, leavened with a large quantity of brewer's yeast, kneaded to excess and thoroughly baked. The crust is removed after standing a day and the crumb is pounded in a mortar and put away in a damp place till it is covered with mold. When it is ripe enough, the new cheeses are[unclear] thoroughly rubbed with this moldy bread and layers of it are put between the layers[unclear] of curd so that they may absorb still more of the mold.

After several days' pressing, the cheeses are wrapped in linen and dried, and then [GAP IN TEXT. Type: . Extent: one word] by the shepherd-dairymen to the village and sold to the owners of the vaults or [GAP IN TEXT. Type: . Extent: one word]--natural clefts or artificial excavations in the limestone rocks--hard by the the town. [GAP IN TEXT. Type: . Extent: two words] caves, the cheeses are piled up and salted, being frequently rehandled and [GAP IN TEXT. Type: . Extent: one word] so that the salt may thoroughly impregnate them. They are next scraped and [GAP IN TEXT. Type: . Extent: one word] with long needles so that the mold may run entirely through them, and then [GAP IN TEXT. Type: . Extent: two words] again piled up and left till they are perfectly dry, in this process developing [GAP IN TEXT. Type: . Extent: two words] white mold which is scraped off from time to time.

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Very few, even of those who know the cheese well, are acquainted with all the pains taken to please their palates.

The best season in the United States for serving Roquefort is from October to May, but if kept in cool cellars it may be enjoyed all the year. It is generally eaten in small quantities at the end of a dinner. It is especially delightful if rolled with half its bulk of butter, sprinkled liberally with cayenne pepper and spread on toasted biscuits. It is also used to fill the hollow parts of stalks of celery, etc.

SAGE CHEESE: is made by the cheddar process and in many shapes and sizes. Its distinguishing characteristic is its flavor of sage and its green mottled appearance when cut. The color is obtained either by mixing sage leaves in the curd before pressing, or by the addition to the main curd of "green curd" obtained by the aid of the juice of green corn--in the latter case, the sage flavor being obtained by the use of sage extract. Parsley, spinach and marigold leaves, bruised and steeped before use, are sometimes employed in place of sage leaves.

SAP SAGO CHEESE: a small, hard green cheese, flavored with the leaves of a kind of clover, made in Switzerland. It is shaped like a truncated cone--four inches high, three inches across at the base and two inches at top. It is chiefly used for grating.

SMIER-KASE. See COTTAGE CHEESE.

STILTON: manufactured in Leicestershire, England, and the richest and finest of English cheeses. It is of a pale color, with veins generally marked by green, or bluish-green, fungus. It is made of raw whole milk to which cream from other milk has been added. It is greatly improved by age, and, to be enjoyed at its best, should not be eaten before it is two years old. A spurious appearance of age is often given it by placing it in a warm damp cellar, or by surrounding it by fermenting dung or straw.

Stilton cheeses are generally twice as high as they are broad, with surfaces brown and crinkled and weighing from twelve to fifteen pounds.

Ripened Stilton cheese is also sold finely ground and put up in jars holding from one to two and a half pounds.

SWISS CHEESE or SCHWEITZER KASE: as understood in this country, is another name for "Emmenthaler" (which see) or "Gruyère." In Switzerland, the original place of manufacture, it indicates a minor grade, being made of half-skimmed milk instead of the full cream milk of Emmenthaler.

TROYES: is the name of two varieties of cheese--one known also as "Ervy," a washed cheese with a yellow rind; and the other called "Barberey" and closely resembling Camembert.

VACHERIN. "Vacherin à la main," is a very soft cheese--the rind is hard, but the interior is spread on bread or eaten with a spoon. "Vacherin fondu" is made in about the same way as Emmenthaler, but the cheese after ripening is melted and spiced.

WESTPHALIAN: comes in small balls or rolls of about one pound each. It derives its peculiar flavor from the curd being allowed to become partly putrid before being pressed.

WESTPHALIA SOUR MILK: a hard sour-milk cheese, flavored by the addition of butter and caraway seed or pepper.

WILTSHIRE: resembles poor Cheshire or Gloucester. The outside is generally painted with a mixture of reddle, or red-ocher and whey.

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CHEESE CAKE: a cake or open pie with curd or cheese as the principal "filling" ingredient.

CHEESE SAFE: a wire cover framed in wood and hinged in the center. It excludes flies and mice and yet admits air. It does not exclude the "tasting customer" and a burglar-proof safe is one of the greatest needs of the trade!

CHERIMOYA: the fruit of a tree cultivated in Mexico, Central America and parts of South America, especially Peru. It varies from the size of an average apple up to a weight of fifteen pounds. The pulp is white, juicy and of exceedingly fine flavor.

It is probable that the Cherimoya will in the near future become very popular as with scientific culture there seems to be no limit to the excellence it may reach and, cut when fully developed but not ripe, it stands transportation well. With only very ordinary and careless methods, the tree averages annually a crop of a hundred or more fruits which are so delicious that they retail in Mexico at from three to eight (American) cents each.

CHERRY: a fruit which is believed to have originated in Persia. In this country, it is most popular raw, canned and otherwise preserved, and put up in liqueurs (as Cherries in Maraschino and Brandied Cherries). It is also stoned and dried, becoming then the "pitted" cherry of commerce and is the source or essential ingredient of various liqueurs, etc.--notably Maraschino and Kirschwasser.

[Illustration: An illustration of a number of people standing in a lane between two rows of trees. Three ladders have been propped up into the trees in the foreground, and some of the people have climbed the ladders with buckets in hand.]

The variety most esteemed as a dessert fruit and for canning, is the Wax Cherry, of light color with rosy cheeks, named for its beautiful waxy appearance. For purposes of distillation, preference is given to the wild cherry, which is smaller and less fleshy than the cultivated, but in the best types is very sweet and often decidedly aromatic, the most noted being the black Marasca cherry, of Dalmatia.

In the forest regions of France, the wild cherry is an important item of the local food supply, large quantities being consumed fresh during the ripening season and the balance of the harvest being dried for winter use, in jams, etc., and in the form of Cherry Soup--which consists substantially of bread and water with a little butter and dried cherries for flavor. In the valley of the Rhine, the schools often close when the cherry crop is ripe, so that both children and parents may gather the luscious harvest.

In this country, California and Oregon are constantly increasing their production, as the dry climate of the orchard


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[Illustration: A color illustration of cherries hanging from a tree branch, accompanied by an inlaid cut depicting the cherry fruit cut in half.]




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regions of those states permits the fruit to reach there its very highest perfection.

Recorded evidence does not go back far enough to say when wild cherries first became an object of the gardener's care. The early Romans were familiar with eight varieties and quantities of cherry stones have been found in the lake dwellings of Switzerland.

CHERVIL: a highly esteemed garden herb grown in all temperature climates and very popular in the South. It is similar to parsley, the Curled being even handsomer.

Chervil Bilbur, or Turnip-Rooted Chervil, is a French variety grown for its roots, which resemble the Parsnip in shape and color. It is a very desirable vegetable, the flesh being sweet and delicate in flavor and almost floury in texture.

CHESHIRE: a cheese akin to Cheddar. See general article on CHEESE.

CHESTNUT (See Color Page II of NUTS): the fruit of a tree which is found in several varieties in different parts of the world. The name is derived from that of the town of Kastana in Asia Minor, which is also more or less closely preserved in several other languages--as the French "Châtaigne" and the German "Kastanien." The nuts grow inside a prickly husk, generally two in each husk, ripening with the first frost.

The American chestnut is usually smaller, but generally sweeter, than the Spanish. The Chincapin is a very small dwarf variety of the American. The Japanese averages larger than the American and in sweetness may be generally classed between it and the Spanish.

In this country, chestnuts are eaten in various forms--raw, boiled, steamed and roasted. They are very nutritious, the dried nuts containing an appreciable quantity of protein, fat and sugar to supplement the starch which is their chief component. The sugar content frequently reaches as high as 15%, the fermentation of the juice yielding a fine granular sugar. They should though be well roasted or boiled for a long time, as raw they are exceedingly indigestible. See also MARRONS.

[Illustration: An illustration of a chestnut plant laden with chestnuts, most of which are splitting open.]

In some mountainous districts of Europe where cereals cannot be raised, the chestnut takes the place of grain to a considerable extent. The chestnut harvest is the event of the year on the slopes of the Apennines and Pyrenees--the gathering of the nuts being for three or four weeks the leading occupation of every mountain village. When all the trees have been


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stripped, the fruit is spread on frames of lattice-work and dried by keeping a fire burning underneath. It is then steamed, roasted, made into pudding--the original "Polenta"--or ground into flour for bread making.

In some parts of Italy the peasants use a cake made of chestnuts as a substitute for potatoes.

CHEWING GUM. The original "chewing gum" was spruce gum, the exudation of the cut branches of the spruce or fir tree. Later, pure white paraffin wax, variously flavored, took its place--but only in its turn to give way to the "chicle" now almost exclusively employed. Chicle is a gum which is obtained from a tropical tree botanically known as the achras sapota, a member of the family which gives the Sapodilla fruit (see SAPODILLA), and variously called the Naseberry and Sapodilla, growing most freely in Mexico, Central America and parts of northern South America.

Though its employment in the manufacture of chewing gum is of comparatively recent date, chicle was used by the Indians prior to the days of Columbus as a means of quenching their thirst. It was first commercially imported as a substitute for rubber, but its peculiar suitability for chewing gum has resulted in the entire product being consumed by that industry. In the year ending June 30, 1910, nearly five and one-half million pounds were brought into the United States.

The trees are "tapped" during the rainy season. The sap or juice as it exudes has the appearance of milk, gradually changing to a yellow color and about the thickness of treacle. The tree drains rapidly, the full supply of "milk" being generally obtained within a few hours, but an interval of several years usually elapses before it will yield a fresh supply. The milk differs from the juice obtained from the sugar maple, for example, in that it is not the life sap of the tree and the flow varies greatly, some trees which show full life yielding much less than apparently poorer specimens. "Crude chicle" is obtained by simple boiling and evaporation of the milk accompanied by frequent kneading, the product as pressed in rough molds being of a light gray color.

The bulk of the crude chicle manufactured is shipped in blocks to Canada, where it is further evaporated and carefully refined prior to importation into the United States.

In the chewing gum factory, the refined chicle is chopped or ground fine, screened and boiled to the right consistence in steam-jacketed kettles. The flavoring and sugar are then added and the whole is transferred to large centrifugal receivers in which it is whipped and kneaded into a dough. It goes next to the kneading tables where it is thoroughly "worked" with powdered sugar and then passed between rollers set with numerous small knives which roll it into sheets and cut it into marketable size. After a final drying, the pieces are ready for wrapping--generally performed by machinery, a single modern wrapping machine being capable of turning out an average of 20,000 packages a day.

It is estimated that chewing gum to a value of $40,000,000 was used in the United States during the year ending June 30, 1910, and present indications are that it will before long have attained almost equal popularity in Europe.

Some manufacturers of patent medicines are now successfully combining digestive and antiseptic ingredients with chewing gum.

CHICK PEA: the "pulse" of the Orient. See GARBANZA.

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[Illustration: An illustration of 12 different varieties of chickens, each of which is labeled with a number.]

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CHICKEN. The word "chicken" formerly meant "young fowl," but usage has applied it to fowls of all ages, the young birds being designated as "spring chickens," "broilers," etc.

The fowl has been reared for food for so many centuries that its first conversion from its wild ancestors is lost in tradition. Poultry raising has been practiced in Europe from the earliest recorded times, and domestic fowl were plentiful in Great Britain long before the Roman invasion.

The best known types of chickens especially suitable for table purposes are the many varieties of the Brahma (very large birds), Cochin, Langshan, Dorking, Orpington, Plymoth Rock, Wyandotte and Houdan. Representative examples of all of these, except the Dorking, are shown on the page illustration preceding. Attention is also directed to the consideration of fowls from the standpoint of egg production in the article on EGGS.

To the general rules for selection given in the article on Poultry (which see) may be added that, thick scales on the legs, thin necks and dark colored thighs are signs of toughness in chickens. A good table bird should have a large full breast and, at other points also, a large proportion of meat to the size of the bones--long thin legs and wings are especially undesirable.

Many heated controversies have been held over the question as to whether drawn or undrawn poultry keeps better. The advocates of the "undrawn" method appear to have the best arguments on their side.

Chickens should be starved for at least twenty-four hours before killing. Those that have been killed with partially filled crops should be avoided, as the disintegration of the grain quickly discolors the flesh. In common with all other meats, chickens should be thoroughly cooled for a couple of days before cooking.

Dry-picked chickens will keep longer than scalded birds. The plucking should be performed immediately after killing.

Capons are considered a little choicer--more tender and of higher flavor--than ordinary fowl. They can be distinguished by the pale and shriveled appearance of the combs, the undeveloped condition of the spurs and especially round well-fleshed bodies.

Poulards, or Spayed hens, are in France considered particularly delicate also, but in this country they are not rated as much, if any, better than first-class pullets.

Milk-fed Chickens are those fattened for market chiefly on milk-soaked bread. Properly regulated, the diet gives birds with very delicate flesh.

A "Squab Chicken" should average 3/4 pound to 1 1/4 pounds in weight; a "broiler" 1 1/2 to 2; one to "sauter," about 2 1/2 pounds; for "roasting" 3 pounds or so; and for fricassee, 4 pounds.

The meat of well fattened chicken of young and medium age has about the same nutritive value as beef, but it is generally considered easier of digestion and therefore especially suitable for invalids and convalescents.

American custom generally discards as refuse various parts of the bird which are considered of value in some other countries. The head of the chicken, for example, is in Europe often left on the bird when it is cooked, as the brain is considered a tit-bit; cocks' combs are everywhere recognized by French cooks as a delicacy worthy of preparation as a separate dish or especially desirable for garnishing; and the feet, skinned and dressed, are used for making broths, etc.

CHICKEN HALIBUT: a term generally applied to young HALIBUT (which see).

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CHICORY. There are two main varieties of the Chicory family under general cultivation--Cichorium Intybus, native to Europe and Cichorium Endivia (See ENDIVE), native to the East Indies.

"Cichorium Intybus" is broadly divided into "Large-rooted Chicory," of which the two best known types are the Brunswick and Magdeburg, and "Common Chicory."

Large-rooted Chicory is cultivated chiefly for the sake of its root, which attains a length of ten to fourteen inches and a diameter of about two inches and produces the "chicory" consumed in large quantities as an addition to coffee (which see). It is kiln-dried, sliced, roasted with a little oil and ground into different sizes, from pieces the size of a coffee bean down to "fine pulverized." When raw it is white and fleshy in appearance, but when roasted it resembles roasted coffee. Unlike coffee, it contains no caffeine, but it has a bitter principle and a volatile oil and the roasting brings out an aroma.

Roasted chicory is highly absorbent of moisture, and should therefore be always kept in closed bottles or canisters, etc.

[Illustration: An illustration of a leafy plant.]

Chicory root is also used in Europe as a vegetable and the young blanched shoots, forced in dark cellars, principally in winter, are the Barbe de Capucin, "Monk's Beard," of the famous French salad of that name. A similar, though not quite so delicate, product is obtained by similar treatment of Common Chicory.

For Witloof Chicory see ENDIVE.

Common Chicory is the salad plant, grown for the young plant's narrow curly leaves, which are generally partly or wholly blanched in cultivation. It is also cooked sometimes as "greens." The title "Succory" is a corruption of "chicory."

CHILI, or Chilies: the Mexican, and quite generally the popular, name for the pods of several species of small-fruited, specially pungent capsicums (which see), put up as a separate pickle or added to "mixed pickles," etc. They are largely consumed in hot countries. The two Mexican dishes containing them which are best known here are chili con carne and the chicken tamale. The word is also used as a group name for many articles highly seasoned either with whole capsicums or cayenne pepper, etc.

CHILI COLORADO SAUCE: a bottled sauce made of Mexican sweet red pepper pods finely minced in a vinegar pickle.

CHILI SAUCE: a bottled sauce made of peppers (green or red), ripe tomatoes, seasoning, etc.

CHILIAN MYRTLE: one of the best varieties of the MYRTLE (which see).

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CHINCAPIN or Dwarf Chestnut: a low tree, bearing fruit the size of a hazel nut. A number of species are native to the East. It does not grow south of Maryland. See CHESTNUT.

CHINESE FIG: one of many titles for the Japanese Persimmon (see PERSIMMON).

CHIPPED BEEF: a term applied to thin-sliced DRIED BEEF (which see).

CHITTERLINGS: sausages made of pig intestines (see SAUSAGES).

[Illustration: An illustration of a chive plant with a shovel stuck into the ground next to it. A portion of the plant has been dug from the ground and lain in the foreground.]

CHIVES, or Cives: a plant of the onion family, cultivated principally for its leaves, which grow in thick tufts resembling grass in appearance but hollow like onion leaves. It is a good substitute for onions, especially in soups and stews.

CHLOROPHYLL: the natural pigment which imparts the green color to leaves and plants and enables them to obtain nourishment by converting to their use the chemical components of the soil. Plants not endowed with Chlorophyll are unable to nourish themselves and must feed on vegetables or animal matter (see FUNGI).

Chlorophyll is commercially used to give a green tint to oils, etc.

CHOCOLATE. See COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.

CHOP: as applied to tea, etc., signifies either the grade--"first chop" then signifying "first quality"--or a special brand or lot. The word originally signified a Chinese custom-house pass or mark.

CHOP SUEY: a thick stew typical of the Chinese restaurant in the United States. The ingredients vary greatly in different establishments, among the many possibilities being chicken trimmings, other meats of any kind, bamboo shoots, mushrooms, rice, etc.

CHOW-CHOW: a mixture of pickles of various sorts in mustard. Also, and originally, a Chinese sweetmeat consisting of pieces of orange-peel, ginger, etc., in syrup.

CHOWDER: a dish composed of fish, pork, onions, biscuit, etc., stewed together, popular in all parts of the country, but especially appreciated on the New England coast, where "clam chowder" and "fish chowder" parties are very common. In New England, cider is sometimes added to the stew. The name comes from the coast of France, where the Chaudière is a large cauldron in which the fisherfolk cook a very similar mixture of fish. Chowder is now sold canned.

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CHUFAS, Earth Almonds, Rush Nuts: the tuberous roots, about the size of beans, of a sedge common to Southern Europe. They rank high in nutrient qualities, and are equally acceptable fresh and dried.

CHUTNEY: a pickle originally made in India, that country still being the source of a number of the finest grades. It is generally based on mangoes with the addition of many other items, such as tamarinds, raisins, ginger, spices, etc. The formula varies greatly with different manufacturers. The Ceylon product is frequently flavored with garlic. Domestic products include Apple Chutney and similar types.

CIBOL: another name for the WELSH ONION (which see).

CIDER: is the juice of apples, both fermented and unfermented. "Sweet Cider" may be either unfermented or with fermentation checked at an early stage so as to leave unchanged a considerable amount of the sugar in the juice. "Hard Cider" is that in which fermentation has continued until all the sugar has been changed into alcohol (and carbon-dioxide) and is consequently sour to the taste. Unfermented cider is frequently styled "apple juice" to distinguish it from fermented "sweet cider."

Cider is obtained by chopping and grinding apples to a pulp, and then pressing in a mill. A dark liquid is obtained which, unless sterilized for "apple juice," will at once begin to ferment and in a few days become the liquid known to commerce as fermented "sweet cider." Great care is again necessary to preserve it in that condition or it quickly develops into "hard cider."

Fermented sweet cider contains from 4% to 8% alcohol and also malic and acetic acids, sugar salts and extractives. Among the most popular, are clarified types such as Champagne Cider, Sparkling Cider and similar imitations of Champagne, generally put up in champagne bottles, with the corks wired down and covered with tin-foil. It should be stored in a cool place, and it greatly improves with age.

Bulk Cider should be kept especially cool, as otherwise it is apt to sour after being tapped. At a temperature of about 75° Fahr., it will gradually become vinegar.

If the head of a cask is swollen by pressure from within, a hole should be bored in it to relieve the pressure and prevent leakage.

Cider for bottling should be of good quality, sound and piquant, and at least twelve months old. Before bottling, it should be examined to see if it is clear and sparkling. If not, it should be clarified (see CLARIFICATION) and left for a fortnight. The bung should be taken out of the cask the night before the bottling day, and the filled bottles should be held a day before being corked down--these precautions are necessary to save the bottles from being burst by pressure. Only the best corks should be used.

When cider is wanted for immediate use, or for consumption during the cooler portion of the year, the bottles may be corked within two or three hours after being filled, but in summer, or for long keeping, this practice is inadmissible.

To keep new cider from fermentation, powdered wood charcoal in the ratio of a pint to a barrel is recommended. Place in a cotton bag and suspend in the barrel.

A small quantity of cider is annually imported, chiefly from Spain and Germany.

CIDER VINEGAR. See general article on VINEGAR.

"C. I. F.": signifies charges or allowances for Cost, Insurance and Freight.

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CIGARS. A cigar department, if properly managed, generally pays good profits to the grocer. Tobacco in every form has always been sold by grocers in the smaller towns--and there is no good reason why cigars at all events should not take their place among other staples in the larger cities also. The purchase of cigars is not a general household expense, but it often falls to the lot of the housekeeper to supply them, and it is a convenience to her to be able to buy in a store to which she is accustomed and in which she feels confidence.

Further, a clean, up-to-date grocery store selling a good class of wines and liquors and a good line of cigars, quickly attracts a very profitable trade from the men themselves. First one and then another will drop in to order some wine or some spirits sent "up to the house" and if the cigar case is attractive, a purchase follows almost as a matter of course. Proper treatment and first-class goods will mean keeping a large proportion of them as steady customers.

To retain men's trade for the cigar department, a grocer must, however, give it even more careful attention than if he were a cigar dealer exclusively. A man getting a bad cigar at a regular dealer's, may attribute it to chance or even to himself as being off taste--but if he has purchased it from his grocer, he is immediately confirmed in his previous general impression that you "can't expect to get a good cigar in a grocery store." Eternal vigilance is decidedly the requirement for obtaining and keeping this line of custom--but it is worth it!

The merchant adding this line for the first time will do well to avoid the rather general error of putting in too large a stock. The result is liable to be that cigars are held in the show-case longer than is good for them, with a consequent loss either of money invested or of your reputation as a purveyor of good cigars! A small stock of a few well-selected lines of moderate price is the best plan. Cigars improve with age to a certain point in especially equipped establishments--but not in the average retailer's store.

The next essential is to see that the cigars are kept in good condition. The method depends upon circumstances and localities. In summer, for example, the problem in coast towns is to keep them from becoming too moist--whereas in inland states it is to prevent them from drying out.

[Illustration: An illustration of a number of people sitting at tables in a factory.]

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[Illustration: A line of women sit at a table walled in by cigar boxes.]

In winter, with artificial heat, artificial moisture is essential nearly everywhere. An open pan of water in the case, with rolls of blotting paper reaching to the top of the case, will answer the purpose if you do not possess one of the several styles of cigar moisteners.

Too much moisture--keeping cigars in a damp place--is as bad as drying them out, for even the best varieties will become heavy, soggy and rank-flavored.

They must also be kept away from any articles of strong odor, such as cheese, fish, spices, coffee, tea, etc.--and place fine cigars in a separate case, as contact with coarser grades will tend to spoil their flavor.

The principal divisions of cigars are into (1) those imported from Cuba, (2) clear Havana cigars manufactured in a climate as nearly as possible like that of Cuba (as Key West, Tampa, etc.), and (3) domestic. To these may be added a growing demand for the Porto Rico and Philippine products.

For commercial purposes, cigars are again divided into three grades of tobacco--dark, medium and light--these including forty or fifty shades grouped under the seven following sub-headings:--

Oscuro, very dark.

Maduro, dark.

Colorado maduro, dark brown.

Colorado, medium dark brown.

Colorado claro, light brown.

Claro, very light colored.

Double claro, or amarillo, lightest of all (this grade seldom seen).

A light-colored wrapper does not necessarily signify a specially "mild" cigar. It is the "filler" which determines the strength--and both light and dark tobacco is liable to be bitter and strong if it has not been properly ripened and cured.

There is practically no limit to the number of sizes or shapes in which cigars are made, as many manufacturer may bring out as many styles as he pleases and name them to suit his own particular fancy. The prevalence of Spanish names and terms is due to the fact that for many generations all the best cigars were manufactured in and exported from Cuba and other Spanish-speaking countries.

It is impossible to give any fixed set of rules for judging the quality and value of cigars and tobacco. The best and only conclusive test--that used by manufacturers


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themselves--is smoking one or two samples to ascertain the virtues or defects of any particular variety. Consequently, unless a merchant is personally a critical smoker and a good judge of cigars, he can be guided only by the reputation of the importer, manufacturer or jobber, and the comments of his customers. The safest plan is to confine orders to houses of long-established and irreproachable reputation. Many a promising cigar department has dwindled to an ignominous finish in the effort to make bigger profits by purchases of cigars "just as good and $10.00 a thousand cheaper" from plausible manufacturers of the opposite type.

The merits of color, size and shape as a "selling" proposition must be gauged by the popular and individual tastes of consumers.

(See also article on TOBACCO.)

CINNAMON (See Color Page of SPICES): is the spicy bark of young branches of the Cinnamon Tree, cut off in strips and dried in the sun, curling during the process into the quills with which the consumer is familiar. Ceylon Cinnamon is obtained from Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, native to Ceylon but also cultivated to some extent in the East Indies. Cassia Cinnamon is from Cinnamomum Cassia, the chief East Indian and Chinese type. Both kinds are sold both in quills and ground, their fragrant aromatic flavor making them a popular adjunct in cookery, confectionery, etc.

Ceylon Cinnamon is the variety referred to in the general article on SPICES as, in earlier days, a commodity of great value and the cause of many wars and much bloodshed. It was first carried to the world's markets by Arabs, who kept its source a close secret for a number of centuries and contrived to discourage possible investigators by stories of fabulous monsters inhabiting the country from which they were supposed to obtain it. That the tree grew wild in Ceylon, was not generally known until the 14th century, in spite of the fact that the spice had been continuously in use since the early days of Israel, Greece and Rome.

[Illustration: A young boy wearing a loincloth stands in the middle of a pile of sticks. Three other people stand in the background, hands on hips.]

Ceylon Cinnamon is of a pale yellowish-brown color and generally of lighter, cleaner and smoother appearance than Cassia. The quills (the smaller enclosed in the larger) are also usually thinner and more tightly rolled, but these distinctions are not absolute, as there are many different grades of Cassia.

Cassia Cinnamon was until recent years decried as an inferior imitation, principally because the greater part of the supply consisted of the inferior and poorly prepared China product. It has however just as good botanical title to the general name of "Cinnamon" as the Ceylon type, and, as the result of the fine quality now exported from French


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Cochin-China and the Dutch East Indies, it is to-day given the preference in the United States and in several European countries, because its flavor is more pronounced and more lasting--the Ceylon is milder and so much more volatile that it loses readily on exposure to the air. The demand for Ceylon Cinnamon has indeed so lessened that commercial interests are urging the cultivation of Cassia in Ceylon in order to maintain the island's position in the trade. In analytical circles the Ceylon variety is still conservatively described as "True Cinnamon" instead of by the commercial term "Ceylon Cinnamon."

The lower grades of Cassia are cheaper than any of the Ceylon generally marketed, but the best qualities are more expensive. The four main grades are those known as Saigon, or Saigan, from French Cochin-China (the choicest): Corintje and Batavia of the Dutch East Indies, and China (the cheapest). Saigon Cassia is generally used for blending with lower grades.

CISCO: a small lake fish resembling in size and appearance the fresh-water herring. In some localities it is known as "whitefish."

[Illustration: A small illustration of a fish.]

CITRANGE: a new member of the citrus family (which includes oranges, grape fruit, lemons, etc.), produced by cultivation. It resembles an orange in general characteristics but is more tart in flavor. It is also described as a "hardy orange," because the trees which bear it can withstand lower temperature than the ordinary orange tree. The fruit is used for making summer beverages, for cooking, etc.

CITRIC ACID: is obtained chiefly from lemons and other citrus fruits but is present in a majority of acidulous fruits such as currants, cranberries, etc.

CITRON: a fruit which is cultivated chiefly for its thick, spongy rind, which in candied form--then thick, tender and of delicious flavor--is popular for use in cakes, preserves, etc. It is also employed in the making of fruit syrups, liqueurs, etc. There are many varieties of the fruit, which is generally warty and furrowed in appearance, with pulp similar in flavor to that of a lemon but less acid, in the largest types attaining to a length of nine inches and weighing up to twenty pounds. It grows freely in sub-tropical climates but is seldom seen by the average consumer in its fresh condition. A small quantity is produced in California but the bulk of the supply is imported.

The variety known as Leghorn Citron comes from Corsica and Sardinia, where the fruit is cut up, barreled in salt pickle and shipped to Leghorn. After remaining for a month or more in the pickle, the rind, freed of seeds, etc., is boiled until tender and then set to soak in slightly sweetened water in order to extract some of the salt. The following day it is removed to a second solution and the next day to another, the process being repeated for a week or more, each new solution being a little sweeter than that preceding. The rind is finally boiled for a short time in heavy syrup and thence goes to racks in a heated room to dry and crystallize. The following day it is ready for packing, being put up in various styles for different markets.

The unripe fruit of the ungrafted citron tree is the "Citron of the Law" used by many Jewish communities in the ceremonies during the Feast of the Tabernacles.

CITRON MELON: used for preserving. See article on MELONS.

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CITRUS: a genus of plants which produce a great number of useful fruits. Citrus Aurantium is the family name for the trees which give us sweet oranges; Citrus Bigaradia is the bitter or Seville orange; Citrus Limonum, the lemon; Citrus Limetta, the lime; Citrus Medica, the citron; Citrus Paradisi, the grape fruit; and Citrus Japonica, the kumquat.

CLAM: the most common American shellfish, eaten fresh in enormous quantities and also extensively consumed in canned form, especially in the West. Its great popularity has resulted in a demand that has in some sections exceeded even the bountiful natural supply, and many of those who make a business of supplying the market have turned to "clam farming" on the tidal mud flats.

[Illustration: A dug-out patch of mud with a group of clams scattered at its bottom.]

The Hard Clam--called "quohaug" in some parts of the East and "poorquaw" in Nantucket--is the variety generally offered in city markets. The small or young clam is the more tender and in most demand for eating raw, the larger clams being generally used for soups, chowders, etc. Where quality is paramount, the hard part of the large clam is often cut off and discarded.

[Illustration: An illustration of a group of people working on a beach with buckets and shovels.]

Hard Clams are also generally known as "Little Neck" clams in contrast to the Soft Clam, which has a long distendible neck.

Soft Clams, also called "Soft Shell Clams," have shells which are thinner, flatter and less round in shape. They are used in a similar diversity of ways--on the shell, broiled, fried, stewed, steamed, etc. Small, inferior grades are strung on cords and sold at a low price by the "bunch" for soups, etc.

The eastern supply of clams comes from Long Island and the New England coast.

CLAM BOUILLON, or Clam Broth: an excellent article when put up by reliable firms. Drunk hot, it is a good remedy in many cases of indigestion.

CLAM CHOWDER: a stew of clams and various other items. See CHOWDER.

CLARET. What we call "claret" is known in France as Vin de Bordeaux, "(Red) Bordeaux wine," sub-divided by the names of cantons or communes, as "St. Julien," etc. The term "claret," an Anglo-Saxon name originally applied only to red Bordeaux wines, is a corruption of clairet, a French word applied in France to any light pale wine


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[Illustration: A color illustration of two groups of clams, one oblong and completely off-white in color, the other slightly more rounded and with a purplish tinge on the inside of the shell. Two inlaid cuts accompany the illustration: one of a man wading in some low water with a bucket and a shovel, and the other featuring a man in a boat, extending a large pair of tongs to scoop something from the ocean floor.]




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and also to various infusions of aromatic plants with wine, honey or sugar, etc.

In France, the term "Bordeaux wine" is applied generally to that produced throughout the entire southwest, but the best comes from the Department of the Gironde, of which the city of Bordeaux is the capital, and of the Gironde wines a large majority of the finest red types, are from the Médoc section, which includes the communes of Arsac, Cantenac, Labarde, Ludon, Macau, Margaux, Pauillac, Pessac, St. Estèphe, St. Julien et Beychevelle and many others of note. Less in quantity, but almost equally famous, are the red wines from the vicinity of St. Emilion.

Red Bordeaux wine, or Claret, is famous both for its bouquet and as a table beverage generally acceptable even to the poorest digestion. Its tonic effect is attributed to the characteristic combination of tannin with a certain low percentage of alcohol. It varies greatly in price according to the special vintage, etc., but its general usefulness is enhanced by the fact that, though the fine bouquet of the expensive types is not found in the cheaper grades, the food value of all grades is practically the same--the composition shown by analysis varies little, no matter what price is paid.

Clarets are broadly classified as "Château," "Bourgeois" and "Ordinary" or "common." Château, are those bearing the name of the château or estate on which they were produced. Bourgeois, represent the great bulk of medium grade wines and are generally named according to the district of production. "Ordinary" or "common," are those made by peasant growers, etc. The last-named are seldom exported.

The best Château wines, the Vins classés, the total product of which is small in comparison with the great bulk of Bordeaux wine, are divided into the five representative "crus"--classes or "growths"--given below. No formal revision of this classification has been made for many years, but it is still essentially correct, in spite of inaccuracies in the nomenclature of a few of the Châteaux of the second to fifth crus.

FIRST CRU.
		COMMUNE.
Château	Margaux	Margaux
"	Lafite	Pauillac
"	Latour	"
"	Haut-Brion	Pessac
SECOND CRU.
Château	Brane-Cantenac	Cantenac
"	Durfort-Vivent	Margaux
"	Lascombes	"
"	Rauzan-Gassies	"
"	Rauzan-Ségia	"
"	Lalande	Pauillac
"	Mouton-Rothschild	"
"	Pichon-Longueville	"
"	Cos d'Estournel	St. Estèphe
"	Montrose	"
"	Ducru-Beaucaillou	St. Julien
"	(Gruaud) Larose	"
"	Gruaud-Larose-Sarget	"
"	Léoville	"
"	Léoville-Barton	"
"	Léoville-Poyferré	"
THIRD CRU.
		COMMUNE.
Château	Cantenac Brown	Cantenac
"	d'Issan	"
"	Kirwan	"
"	Palmer	"
"	Giscours	Labarde
"	La Lagune	Ludon
"	Becker	Margaux
"	Desmirail	"
"	Ferrière	"
"	Malescot-St.éxupéry	"
"	Calon-Ségur	St. Estèphe
"	Langora	St. Julien
"	Lagrange	"
FOURTH CRU
Château	Poujet	Cantenac
"	Prieuré	"
"	Marquis de Terme	Margaux
"	Duhart-Milon	Pauillac
"	Rochet	St. Estèphe
"	Beychevelle	St. Julien
"	Brapaire-Duine[unclear]	"
FOURTH CRU--Cont'd.
		COMMUNE.
Château	Saint-Pierre	St. Julien
"	Talbot	"
"	Latour Carnet	St. Laurent
FIFTH CRU.
Château	Du Tertre	Arsac
"	Dauzac	Labarde
"	Cantemerle	Macau
"	Batailley	Pauillac
"	Clerc-Milon	"
"	Croizet-Bages	"
"	Ducasse-Grand-Puy	"
"	Grand-Puy	"
"	Haut-Bages	"
"	Lynch-Bages	"
"	Lynch-Moussas	"
"	Mouton-d' Armailhacq	"
"	Pédesclaux	"
"	Pontet-Canet	"
"	Cos-Labory	St. Estèphe
"	Belgrave	St. Laurent
"	Camensac	"

Cachet du Château wines are those bottled on the Château or estate and bearing its crest or trade-mark. Other exported Château wines are generally matured and bottled by wine merchants, many of them of long standing and international reputation.

Some Cachet du Château wines command very high prices, but it must be remembered that though the château bottling guarantees the genuineness of a wine, it does not necessarily vouch for its being of high value, as its merit depends upon the quality of the year's vintage. A Château claret of an especially good year is often a


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great deal more expensive than the same Château's production of the year before or after.

Also, some of the finest wines are those matured and bottled by high class wine merchants, who buy largely in bulk when a vintage--either or both Château or Bourgeois--promises to be desirable. In such cases, the reputation of the wine merchant takes the place of that of the Château as a guarantee of its quality.

The high repute of the fine Château types is due to the extreme care exercised at every stage--in the selection of the vines and their cultivation, as well as in the making and maturing of the wine itself.

Bourgeois wines are generally divided into "first," "second" and "third" grade. The types best known here are the various grades of Médoc, St. Julien, St. Emilion, St. Estèphe, Margaux and Pontet Canet.

To understand the wide variation in price of clarets bearing the same general name, it is only necessary to remember that French claret titles are chiefly geographical and that, quite naturally, many grades may be found in the same locality. For example, one of the cheapest grades of French clarets imported is generally known here as "Médoc"--and correctly so if the wine comes from the Médoc section--but, as noted in the second paragraph, the same section produces also nearly all the very finest French clarets--those of the first "cru" or grade being in France specifically known as Vin du Médoc, or "Médoc wine." Similarly, a St. Julien may be a moderate-priced wine bearing only the name of a district, or an expensive one with a Château title. In addition, is the variation from year to year in the quality of the wine produced.

The purchaser who is not a connoisseur is consequently guided either by the reputation of the firm selling or by that of the Château, if buying Château-bottled wine.

Fine clarets will keep and improve for about fifteen years or a little longer. After that, they generally deteriorate very rapidly. They should never be used immediately after delivery, as they require at least two weeks to settle and become clear. They should, like Burgundy, be drunk at the temperature of the average dining room.

The best grades will contain about half a wine-glass of thick wine and sediment in each bottle, and care must be exercised to avoid mixing this up when carrying from the cellar and when pouring into the glass or decanter, or the wine will appear dull and have a rough, bitter taste. See general article on WINES (decanting, etc.).

The lower priced clarets form an especially refreshing summer drink, served either undiluted or liberally mixed with water.

America produces a large quantity of excellent wine of Claret type, variously labelled according to the fancies of the makers. Some varieties masquerade under French claret names, as "St. Julien," "Margaux," etc. Others bear the more honest titles of the grapes principally employed, as "Norton," "Ives," "Concord," etc., in the East and South, and "Cabernet," "Zinfandel," etc., in California, or special trade or locality names. The bulk of American claret is produced in the coast range district of California (see AMERICAN WINES).

The practice of diluting with water is particularly suitable for American claret when consumed as a general table beverage, as it is usually stronger in alcohol than French claret.

See also BORDEAUX WINES (white).

CLARIFICATION, or Fining: the act of making "clear" or "bright," applied especially to "clearing" or "fining" liquids by the addition of albumin, gelatine or isinglass,


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etc. The substances used in the process are known as "finings" and their operation is similar to the "settling" of coffee by the addition of egg-albumen (egg-white). When added to wine, for example, the result of the "fining" is to remove part of the tannin--the latter coagulates the fining and the mass drops to the bottom, leaving the liquid clear. Clarification is a very delicate process, because the removal of too much tannin injures the liquid, yet if too much is left, it becomes cloudy again.

Boneblack, Charcoal, Bullock's Blood, etc., are still largely used in the clarification of sugar, but centrifugal force is the principal agent in modern refineries. See general article on SUGAR.

Many liquids are clarified by filtering through cloth, silk, etc.

CLOVES (see illustration in Color Page of SPICES). Cloves, widely used for flavoring desserts and confectionery and medicinally, are the dried flower buds of the clove tree. As plucked, they are reddish in color, but this changes to the familiar dark brown in the process of drying, performed either by the smoke of wood fires or by exposure to the sun.

The clove tree, an evergreen, grows to a height of forty feet, bears its developed clove buds in its seventh year, and gives two crops annually, increasing its productiveness up to an age of nearly a hundred years.

The clove industry was for many centuries confined to very narrow limits. A few islands of the Molucca group furnished the world's supply up to the beginning of the seventeenth century; then the Dutch, having driven the Portuguese out of the "Spice Islands," tried to destroy all the clove trees except those on the Island of Amboyna, to perfect their monopoly.

[Illustration: An illustration of a group of people walking in a lane between two rows of rees.]

Later, the Island of Zanzibar became an important producer, but for a number of years following 1872 it was again unproductive as the result of a cyclone which uprooted nearly all of the mature fruit-bearing trees.

An interesting result of the cyclone was the release from the Dutch government warehouses at Amboyna of surplus cloves that had been accumulating there for generations--no sales having been permitted except when the bids reached the prices set by the government. The markings on some of the barrels received at that time in New York showed that they belonged to the surplus of crops reaching back nearly a hundred years--some of the barrels were ready to fall to pieces, but the cloves were in excellent condition.

The principal sources of supply today are the Islands of Zanzibar and Pemba (British East Africa) and the East Indies (both Dutch and British).


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The best grade of British is that known as Penang; that of Dutch is Amboyna. Dark, well-formed cloves are the best.

Mother Cloves is the dry ripe fruit. It somewhat resembles the olive in appearance. Its flavor is similar to, but much weaker than, that of the ordinary clove.

CLYSMIC. See general article on table and medicinal MINERAL WATERS.

COAL TAR: a by-product of the manufacture of coal-gas and coke, was first noted in the latter part of the sixteenth century by a German chemist named Johann Joachim Becher. For a long time it was though practically a waste substance, ill-smelling, black and sticky, of no market value and difficult to dispose of in any way, as it polluted rivers and destroyed vegetation.

Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, the pitch and lighter oils obtained by distilling it became of importance in the roofing, paving and chemical industries, eventually being used for making briquets and for wood preservation, waterproofing, preservative coatings, etc., but its real history commences with the founding of the Coal Tar chemical industry by Sir Henry Perkin in 1856. Since that date science has produced from it an innumerable variety of chemical compounds of the most diverse characters and uses--comprising dye-stuffs, antiseptics, explosives, medicines, some of the most fragrant of perfumes, saccharin (a substance 300 times sweeter than sugar), flavoring extracts, etc., etc.

The flavoring extracts produced include vanillin or artificial vanilla, cinnamon oil, oil of bitter almonds, coumarin, oil of wintergreen, essence of orange blossoms, essence of rhubarb, etc. The list might be indefinitely extended, for it has been stated by a prominent chemist that a majority of the foods listed on the average bill of fare, could be counterfeited in flavor by the use of Coal Tar preparations.

COCA: the leaves of the coca plant, Erythroxylon, a bush resembling the blackthorn, which grows to a height of five to eight feet. They are thin, opaque and oval, tapering somewhat like tea leaves in the best types, a light olive-green above and whitish-green on the under-surface. When dried, they have an odor resembling that of tea leaves and an aromatic bitter taste. They are employed medicinally and in the manufacture of various tonic beverages for their stimulating property--which is akin to caffeine or theine but is held in the leaves in larger proportion than caffeine in coffee or theine in tea. The natives of various parts of South America, particularly Peru, chew the dried leaves, generally together with a little pulverized unslacked lime, for the ability they give to resist fatigue. Though this use has apparently been a daily custom for uncounted generations, it is seldom that any ill effects are noted. The principle chemically extracted is the drug Cocaine.

COCHINEAL: the best example of coloring from animal sources. See CARMINE.

COCKIE-LEEKIE: a Scotch soup of which the "character" ingredients are fowls, leeks and seasoning.

COCKROACH: an orthopterous insect which may be classed among the most offensive and objectionable of domestic pests. It is extremely voracious, not only devouring all kinds of provisions, but destroying silk, flannel and even cotton fabrics in the


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absence of anything more edible. It is nocturnal in its habits and exceedingly active and swift of movement, its flattened form enabling it to insinuate itself easily into crevices and thus escape detection. It is found in many varieties and in every part of the world--from the Frozen North, where it is often responsible for the destruction of the winter's supply of dried fish, to its most favored habitat, the tropical zone.

The three chief domesticated species found here are, Blatella Germanica, the small variety known as the German Cockroach, Water-bug, Croton-bug, etc.; Blatta Orientalis, the Common Cockroach or "Black Beetle"; Blatta Americana, the American Cockroach, which averages the largest of the common varieties, and the Periplaneta Australisae, or Australian Cockroach. In spite of their geographical titles, these four are now international in distribution. The Australian Cockroach is not so frequently seen in northern states, but it is the most plentiful and obnoxious in Florida and other parts of the South.

Except for differences in size, the domesticated roaches of temperature climates resemble each other in general characteristics, but the wild roaches of the tropics present a wonderful diversity of size, color and shape, one species attaining the enormous length of six inches. Another large, partially domesticated variety found in the West Indies is locally known as the "drummer," from the tapping noise it makes on wood--the sound thus produced, when joined in by several of the creatures, as it usually is, being sufficient to destroy the slumbers of a household.

The only certain way of ridding an apartment or store of roaches is by fumigation, the two most widely approved agents being hydrocyanic acid ga