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Title: The Market Assistant...
Author: De Voe, Thomas F. (Thomas Farrington)
Publisher: New York, Hurd and Houghton

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> WHAT WE EAT.

THE first natural demand of man is food to nourish his wasting system, and for this purpose he has been bountifully provided for with an extensive choice, furnished by the various productions of both land and water. Man in his natural state, like the wild beasts of the forest, consumes food naturally and spontaneously obtained; but civilized man, luxuriously trained and educated, obtains his principal support from artificial food, or that which has been produced by his skill and labor; and thus we find that the wild and cultivated animals, as well as the natural and cultivated plants, is the proper and sole food for cultivated man.

"Man is a carnivorous production,

And must have meals at least once a day'

He cannot live, like woodcocks, upon suction,

But, like the shark and tiger, must have prey."

The various fruits, grain, roots, and herbs, with flesh, fish, and fowl, all contribute to the sustenance of man, or rather, to furnish the daily wants, and to supply the wear and tear of his body. The perfect conformation of man's organization is capable of converting into nourishment every peculiarity of food, and separating the nutritive portions of every variety from each production.

Authors agree that animal food is found to be strongly nourishing, and, when extensively used, it is too heating and stimulating, and, withal, overworks the digestive organs, which, after a time, exhausts and debilitates the body; while, on the other hand, a pure vegetable diet seems insufficient to secure to the human system all the strength and vigor of which it is capable, although thousands of individuals


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live almost entirely on the latter, but it is found they are seldom so robust, so active, or so brave. Physiologists, therefore, are of opinion that a mixed diet of animal and vegetable food is best suited to the nature and constitution of man. In warm climates, however, meat is found less desirable than any other kind of food.

"All animals, with but few exceptions, are used as food by various nations of men, although that which is selected as a delicacy by one country is refused as unfit and loathsome by another. The Englishman refuses to dine on Snails with an Italian, on Frogs with a Frenchman, on Horseflesh with the Tartars, or on the Crocodile, Toad, or Locust with the African.

"A traveller, in the last century, remarked to certain Arabs that he wondered at their eating insects so disgusting as Locusts; to which they replied, with some show of reason, that it savored of affectation in a person who could swallow an Oyster to be startled by any thing in the way of eating."

"The Americans will not eat horses, asses, dogs, cats, rats, or mice, but they are all used as food, and some as great luxuries, in other countries."

In Africa the natives eat Ants stewed in Palm Oil, and the large Termites, or White Ants, are roasted in iron pots and eaten by handfuls, as sugar-plums; and as for Locusts, Dr. Phipson says they are far from dreading their invasions, but look upon a dense cloud of Locusts as we would look upon a miracle of Bread and Butter floating in the air. They smoke them, or salt them, or boil them, or stew them, or grind them down as Corn, and get fat on them.

"Lo! the poor Indian, who untutored feeds

On Locusts, Beetles, Frogs, and Centipedes!

His taste keen hunger never taught to sigh

For Beef, Veal, Mutton, Pork, or Pumpkin Pie;

But thinks, admitted to that equal feast,

All things are good for man as well as beast."

It is also found that Horseflesh is not an uncommon article


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of food, either in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and other places, where it is publicly exposed for sale in their public markets. It is upon record that about the year 1810, in the town of Christiana, Norway, four hundred horses had been killed for the consumption of that town for a period of a little over two years. We also find it asserted by M. Duchatelet that a very large quantity is consumed in Paris. The Knackers (Horse-slayers) and their families, who live principally on it, have a remarkably robust and healthy appearance. Surgeon Larrey also states that the French armies, during many campaigns under Napoleon I. were greatly indebted to Horseflesh for the means of subsistence. A correspondent from Vienna to the "New York Times," 1855, gives a favorable account of its use in that city, as follows: "The consumption of Horseflesh by the poorest classes, which for the past two years has been more and more resorted to, tends to check any rapid rise in Beef and the common meats. While good roasts and bake-pieces cost fifteen kreutzers the pound--not even so high as in New York--Horseflesh is bought for five kreutzers. An acquaintance who has eaten beef-steak from this meat--would it do to call it horse-steak?--assures me that it does not taste at all bad--that it is indeed a delicacy--and argues from the nature of the food of the two, that horseflesh is a much choicer diet than fried chicken. It may seem to show how well the poorer classes like it, to state that within the past few weeks, in Hamburg, if I remember rightly, the price of this article of food has risen to almost its former rate, owing to the increased demand."

Mule-meat has also been spoken of as being excellent eating; although its trial took place under peculiar circumstances, yet it was compared with horseflesh and such beef as was in the possession of the besieged rebels while caged in Port Hudson. A Confederate officer who has, or is, preparing a detailed account of what took place inside of this fortification during its beleaguerment, says that when (29th of June, 1863) "the last quarter-ration of beef had been


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given out to the troops, on the 1st of July, at the request of many officers, a wounded mule was killed and cut up for experimental eating. All those who partook of it spoke highly of the dish: the flesh of mules being of a darker color than beef, of a finer grain, quite tender and juicy, and as having a flavor between that of beef and venison. There was an immediate demand for this kind of food, and the number of mules killed by the commissariat daily increased. Some horses were also slaughtered, and their flesh was found to be very good eating, but not equal to the mule. Rats, of which there were plenty about the deserted camps, were also caught by many officers and men, and were found to be quite a luxury--superior, in the opinion of those who ate them, to spring-chicken."

The ancients appear to have been rather singular in their choice of diet, as Dick, in his "Diet and Regime," says--"They used neither buckwheat, nor French Beans, nor Spinach, nor Sage, Tapioca, Saless, Arrowroot, nor Potato or its varieties, nor even the common, but a sort of marsh-grown Bean, nor many of our fruits, as the Orange, Tamarinds, nor American Maize. On the other hand, they ate substances which we now neglect: the Mallow, the herb Ox Tongue, the sweet Acorn, the Lupin. They used greatly Radish, Lettuce, Sorrel; they liked the flesh of wild Asses, of little Dogs, of the Dormouse, of the Fox, of the Bear. They ate the flesh of Parroquets, and other rare birds, and of Lizards. They were fond of a great many fish and shell-fish which we now hold in no esteem. They employed as seasoning Rue and Assafœtida."

An amusing article on diet, written above one hundred years ago, is found in a London paper called "St. James' Chronicle," dated November 6, 1762, and thus reads:--"There is no affectation more ridiculous than the antipathies which many whimsical people entertain with respect to diet. One will swoon at a Breast of Veal; another can't bear the sight of a Sucking-pig; and another owes as great a grudge to a Shoulder of Mutton as Petruchio, in the farce.


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How often does it happen in company that we are debarred of a necessary ingredient in a salad because somebody, forsooth, cannot touch oil! And what a rout is made, whisking away the cheese off the table, without our being suffered to have a morsel of this grand digester, if any one should happen to declare his dislike to it!

"There are others of an equally fantastic disposition, who, as we may say, choose to quarrel with their bread and butter. These are eternally suspicious that their food is not sweet. They bring their plates up to their noses, or their noses down to their plates, at every thing that is put upon them. Their stomachs are so delicately nice that they descry a fault in all they eat. The fish is stale, the mutton is rank, or the suet in the pudding is musty. I have an aunt who almost starves herself on account of her squeamishness in this particular. At one time she is sure the sheep died of the rot; at another the pork is measly; and she would not touch a bit of beef all the time of the distemper among the horned cattle. Veal she detests, because, she says, it is well known the Butchers blow it up with their nasty breath; besides, the Calves have brine given them to make their flesh white. She used to declare House-Lamb to be the only wholesome food, because the innocent creatures were fed with nothing but their mother's milk; but she has lately taken disgust to this likewise, since she has been told that some rascally butchers keep large mastiff-bitches on purpose for their Lambs to suck.

"I dined with her yesterday, when she made an apology for the Beef not being salt enough, saying that she was under a necessity of boiling it too soon, as she did not think it safe to buy any meat yet awhile, on account of the late inundations; for she was apprehensive that the drowned carcasses of hogs, sheep, and other cattle would make their way up to the London shambles. I was surprised that a suspicion of this sort should have entered her head, but more surprised still to find it hinted at afterwards by the following advertisement in the 'Public Advertiser' of Monday:

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"'The Master and Wardens of the Butchers' Company do hereby acquaint the public that they have not been able (notwithstanding the utmost care and assiduity has been used by them) to find that any of the hogs or sheep that were drowned in the late unhappy floods, have been exposed to sale within this city or the suburbs thereof.

"'


[Illustration: An illustration of a hand with the index finger pointing at the first line of text in the paragraph.]

Any person that sends notice to the Company, at their hall in Pudding Lane, of any casualty or unwholesome flesh of any sort that is exposed for sale, so that the same may be seized, will receive the thanks of the Company, and be a friend to the public in general, the Company being determined to prosecute all persons selling casualty or unwholesome flesh.'

"'I cannot help observing that it seems odd the butchers themselves should sound the alarm about casualty flesh, which many people otherwise might never have thought of. The fishmongers would never cry stinking fish, and the bakers would be unwilling to have it even supposed that any made use of alum in their bread. I remember, for a great while after the affair of Elizabeth Tofts, the Rabbit-woman, the owners and renters of warrens were all ruined, for persons would as soon eat a cat as a rabbit. Should the like disgust prevail against flesh, from the fear of its being casualty flesh, what would become of Smithfield and Leadenhall Markets? There is, indeed, some danger that people will conceive an antipathy against barrelled beef, pickled pork, and all kinds of soused meat, on this occasion; and it is to be hoped that the contractors for victualling His Majesty's Navy will not buy up any of the drowned cattle, to turn the stomachs of our sailors. The unwholesomeness, however, of casualty flesh I have heard denied by a gentleman, who had been in Italy, and declared that he himself had eaten heartily (without any ill effects) of a hog that was casually barbecued, and an ox that was roasted whole in the eruptions from Mount Vesuvius."

The mode of living adopted by some, especially among the rich, who, by their late dinner-hours and sumptuous


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feasts, no doubt prepare themselves for early graves. As an old author says, "Some stop their breath with venison and carpe; some poison themselves with soups and ragouts; and others stifle nature with cheese-cakes and tarts. N.B.--Divers worthy citizens make custard their executioner. And who would think it? even beef and puddings, as public-spirited victuals and good protestants as they may seem, are frequently guilty of man-slaughter; and many a country squire, when he escapes drowning in a sea of October, dams up the springs of life with a rump of beef.

"Harmless mutton itself does frequent mischief this way. So that the butchers, as well as the 'pothecaries, are the licensed poisoners of a commonwealth. It may, indeed, seem strange that the sacrifices of oxen should be sacrifices of men too, and that ignorant butchers should interfere with the learned of Warwick-lane, and yet the faculty bear with it; for though butchers are tolerably illiterate and clumsy, yet, as their profession is the killing of brute beasts only, I do not see why the college should permit such unqualified Brethren. Alas! a butcher has but one instrument of death, and that is his knife: and what is that in comparison?" Dr. Carlyon also tells us that "Mixtures, and spices, and wines are the ruin of half the stomachs in the world. Just see: You take, at a dinner-party, soup, a glass or two of wine-punch perhaps; turbot and rich lobster sauce, with, it may be, an oyster paté, or a sweet-bread, to amuse yourself with while the host is cutting you a slice of the southdown haunch; this, with jelly and French beans, is set in ferment with a couple of glasses of hock or sauterne added; when a wing of a partridge or the back of a leveret, solaced with a little red hermitage, succeeds; then you at once sit at ease, and chill your heated stomach with a piece of iced pudding, which you preposterously proceed to warm again with a glass of noyeau or some other liquor: if you are not disposed to roguet with a spoonful of jelly in addition, you are sure to try a bit of stilton and a piquant salad, and a glass of port therewith. At dessert, port, sherry, and claret fill


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up the picture. This is about the routine of the majority of dinner-parties. Such a dinner is, in fact, a hospitable attempt on your life."

The Jews, we find, will not eat the flesh of any animal (or fowl) used by them without it has been killed and examined by one of their own persuasion, called a shoket (Jew butcher), who is appointed by their synagogue, or some Jewish ecclesiastical authority, as they retain the opinions held by them from "olden times," concerning the killing of meat for the table. They also will not eat guinea fowls, Muscovy or other ducks, having fleshy crests, besides bears, rabbits, squirrels, etc.; but such game as deer, partridges, quail, etc., when trapped, or otherwise caught alive, and killed by a shoket, their flesh is then accepted.

Their particular manner of slaughtering a bullock is, by having its hind legs slung, and hoisted high enough to throw it off its fore-feet. The shoket, or "cutter," as he is generally known among butchers, stands ready with his long, polished, keen knife, waiting to have the animal's neck turned upwards, which is done by those who dress the animal. He, with one hand, the left, pinches up the skin on the throat, and, with the knife in the other hand, lays its edge, near to the point, on the throat. He then, with a strong, quick thrust forward, and a sudden draw back, without lifting the knife, divides the flesh and the jugular veins. This is, no doubt, the best mode of more fully clearing the body of its blood: the Jews believing that the blood is the life, from the Mosaic law, which forbids the destruction of the life.

After the process of skinning has commenced, the shoket opens the abdomen, and with his hand examines, by feeling, the lungs, liver, etc.; and, if found in a sound and healthy condition, he places seals, stamped with Hebrew characters, only on the fore-quarters, which particularly shows the day of the month when slaughtered; and the flesh or meat is then termed cosher, or good Jew or Hebrew meat, and fit for their use. Twenty years ago, these seals,


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which were then used, were made of lead, but, since that period, they have used thick paper and wax.

If, however, the animal is found defective, either with lungs grown fast to the side, liver diseased, or any other abnormal or unhealthy indications of disease (which is seldom the case with a thriving fat young animal), the shoket pronounces it trifa, or unfit to be used by them; then it is not sealed, but resold to those whose religious scruples may be no bar to its use.

The gut-fat of the cosher animal is also sealed, and used in the place of suet (which is never used by the strict Jews) for all cooking purposes.

The hind-quarters of the animals thus slaughtered are not sealed, and therefore not eaten in this country by the strict Jews, although their laws allow of their being eaten when operated upon by the professional porcher; but as there are none known or recognized by them in the United States, this choice part is left without seals. The operation of the porcher is in the difficult performance of extracting the blood, fat, veins, and sinews, numbering above fifty, recognized by them in the hind-quarters; and I am told they count one hundred and eleven in the whole body, but those from the fore-quarter are more easily removed.

They point to the cause of their refusal to eat the flesh from the hind-quarters (and, in fact, to all their different laws, customs, and belief), to the Old Testament, more particularly, on this point, to Genesis xxxii. 32: "Therefore the children of Israel eat not of the sinew which shrank, which is upon the hollow of the thigh, unto this day, because he touched the hollow of Jacob's thigh in the sinew that shrank."

This shoket is paid by the society in which he worships, an annual salary, and, in addition, a perquisite from the owners of the animals which he slaughters.

The edible productions of the present day, considered fit for human food, are very numerous, some of which are the greatest delicacies, while others of them the simplest food,


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with prices to correspond with their scarcity, rarity, or plentifulness. Many, of course, are unseasonable and unnatural to this climate; but by artificial means, and the swift steam-engine, they have become and are looked for as "things in season." In fact, the public market-place in the various cities under consideration, furnishes us with a "Bill of Fare" which includes almost every article known; among which we have from the North, the moose and bear meat, salmon, mascalonge, white-fish, pike, and drawn poultry; the sea-shore--East--furnishes us with shore-birds, fowl, sea-fish, oysters, and lobsters; from the South comes the early and fine Bermuda potatoes, onions, peas, oranges, bananas, and early shad, with the excellent wild duck from the Potomac; while the West pours in her wild-fowl, venison, poultry, butter, all of which comes by the millions of pounds weight, through the course of the year.

In order to arrange these various productions, and other subjects treated of, I have placed them under the following different heads, viz.: Going to Market; Domestic or Tame Animals; Beef; Veal; Mutton; Lamb; Pigs, Hogs, and Pork; Goats' Flesh; The Parts we use from Domestic Animals; Wild Animals, called Game; Poultry; Wild-Fowl and Birds called Game; Fish; Fish, Large and Abundant; Fish, Small and Abundant; Fish, Large and Scarce; Fish, Small and Scarce; Shell-Fish; Vegetables; Pot Herbs, Medicinal, and other Plants; Fruit; Nuts; Dairy and Household Products; Pot Plants, Roots, and Bouquets; Economy in the use of Meats; Hung Meats; Bleeding Animals; and Cooks and Cookery.

The first in the above arrangement appears somewhat important, as well as necessary, to assist the young housekeeper in purchasing the market supplies wanted, and perhaps a few hints on the subject will be acceptable to her or any others interested. They will appear under the head--

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> GOING TO MARKET.

Some fifty years ago it was the common custom for the thrifty "old New Yorker," when going to market, to start with the break of day, and carry along with him the large "market-basket," then considered a very necessary appendage for this occasion. His early visit gave him the desired opportunity to select the cuts of meat wanted from the best animals; to meet the farmer's choice productions, either poultry, vegetables, or fruit, and catch the lively, jumping fish, which, ten minutes before, were swimming in the fish-cars.

Soon after followed the "good housewife," who would not trust anybody but herself to select a fine young turkey, or a pair of chickens or ducks, which she kept hold of until the bargain allowed her to place the coveted articles in her capacious basket, that was being carried by a stout servant, who also carried a bright tin, covered kettle, ready to receive several nice rolls of butter, so cleanly and neatly covered with white linen cloths.

The modern "marketer" will still occasionally observe some "relics of the past," who cling to the old custom taught them in their youth, perhaps, by an honored sire, who was not too proud to carry home a well-filled market-basket, containing his morning purchase, which his purse or taste prompted him to select. These old-fashioned ideas, alas! are all lived down, and we reluctantly turn from them, as we would from an interesting but worn-out book to peruse the pages of modern composition.

We now find many heads of families who never visit the public markets, who are either supplied through the butcher or other dealers in our markets, or by their stewards or other servants, or by some that may be termed go-between-speculators, who take orders for marketing, groceries, etc., on their own hook; and, of course, they purchase the various articles of those who will give them the largest percentages. I am sorry, however, to be compelled to state that there are


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but few of this species of help, or market assistants, who can lay claim to the title of trustworthy.

It is, therefore, as necessary for our health as it is to our interest to obtain the knowledge of what we desire to purchase, that the articles shall be what they are represented to be, and that they are furnished at the regular market price.

To market well, then, requires much experience, although many rules might be introduced, but they would be seldom successfully followed. Practice gives the looks, smell, feeling, and many signs that are almost indescribable, and which are formed from close observation.

Many dealers know too well how to disguise an inferior article, so as to deceive those who have but little knowledge of marketing; although a lower price may be demanded, such provisions are dear from the fact of their inferior quality, and when prepared are neither relished nor half consumed--perchance they are wholly wasted.

Another class of dealers, while they furnish good articles, they do not fail to obtain exorbitant prices, of such a character as to come under the name of extortion. To succeed in such extortions, different modes of misrepresentation are adopted, which, in our plain vernacular, might be termed absolute lying--"business lying," white or black lying, or any other lying the reader may choose to designate the system.

Their articles are represented as being--"The very best that were ever produced!"--"The finest and largest you ever saw!"--"Could not be better!"--"First-rate!"--"Excellent!"--"Beautiful!"--"Splendid!"--"Can't be beat!"--"As cheap as dirt!" and "Can't be got elsewhere!"

One day I heard a military hero say to a person who was extolling a good common goose, and enlarging on the numerous splendid accessories surrounding it--"Why, your geese are all swans--I do not want any of them. I merely want a good young goose, about that size."

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The numerous falsehoods sometimes told, are expressed with such appearance of innocence, that many really feel that what they say must be "the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth," and so accede to their extortionate demands. This class of dealers effect more business and succeed better than the honest, conscientious dealer, who, when asked, "Is this article the best I can get?" will answer, "I should not like to say it is, but I think it is as good." Such an answer is not always a satisfactory one to the questioner, as he would require one of certainty, or--"It is the very best that comes to the markets, and you cannot get it elsewhere so good, nor so cheap." This appears to be a great fault with many purchasers, that to induce them to buy the dealers must bespatter their articles with a dozen falsehoods, and sometimes fifteen or twenty per cent. above the market price, before the purchasers are fully satisfied with their bargains.

This wretched system or custom, we find, generally pervades everywhere, and in every business, where goods and other property are exposed to sale; both men and women, merchants and mechanics, tradesmen and salesmen, in fact all kinds, are afflicted with this prevailing tongue-disease of exaggeration.

This dishonest custom gives the honest salesman or purveyor but little satisfaction while doing business, as they are often subjected to many petty annoyances, which usually come from those whose education should teach them better. There are others who are deficient of this desideratum, who claim from the lack of educated honesty some charity and excuse for their acts. We occasionally find among purchasers some who are known as "shoppers" and "runners," who make no difference where they trade, so long as it shall be the best article at a low price; and to make a sale to such the market-price must generally be reduced; and when that is done, suspicion steps into the "shopper's" mind, who examines and re-examines, with question after question, whether "perfectly good, tender, and sweet;" and upon


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being answered in the affirmative, the "shopper" often turns from the dealer with a supercilious gesticulation, as if they placed no confidence in the recommendation. We recur to an instance where a lady had several times treated a butcher to this negative treatment to his recommended meat, when she was, by him, impressed with this well-merited retort: "My previous answers, in relation to the quality of meat which you several times before selected, have not received such attention as was expected from you; hereafter you will be obliged to judge for yourself." She was not a purchaser on that occasion, but afterwards she gave no further trouble in this respect.

There are other dealers, again, who use much of what may be termed outside deceit--that is, by placing some attractive mark or emblem, in the way of flags, ribbons, signs, etc., to represent the articles so dressed and decorated as being either premium or prize or superior, or some extraordinary quality about them, from the good or general average of what they should represent; and this is done for the purpose of procuring a higher price for an inferior article. In fact, I have heard it said: "I put ribbons and flags on my meat to make it sell for a good price, as I am bound to make money some way or another." This method this class adopt as a "legitimate manner of doing business."

The safest plan for the inexperienced is to select respectable dealers, on whom they can rely. They may charge higher prices for that which they furnish; in the end, however, more satisfaction is afforded, by less risk, and more saving and relish--in fact, cheaper in every way, because all good articles are with profit used--that, while the best articles may cost more money in the purchase thereof, they will be found to be the most economical in the end.

On the other view, unprincipled dealers are always ready for what they term chances, either by giving short weight, short measure, or short change; and, if they are detected, "Why, it's a mistake!" or, if he (or she) think that blustering,


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or loud and harsh words, will frighten the wronged purchaser, this mode of tactics is brought to bear.

Many respectable purchasers, not having the time to go to the public markets, will sometimes purchase of the "cheap shops," or street-pedlers, many of whom are still worse than those we have already spoken of, especially street-pedlers, who cannot be found when their fraud or deceit is too late discovered.

A few years ago, one of the city sealers of weights and measures, in one of the districts of our (New York) city, collected fifty-four measures, from grocers and wagon-pedlers, that fell short of the standard. A half-bushel fell short three and a half quarts; twenty-one half-peck measures fell short about one quart each; fifteen two-quart measures were short six quarts in the aggregate; and sixteen one-quart measures were short, in the aggregate, six quarts.

An old law, as well as a long-standing custom, makes it incumbent upon the seller that all articles subject to be sold by the measure--such as apples, peaches, potatoes, and others of a round, oval, or flat conformation--shall be heaped up above the even line of the measures, to make up for the interspaces between the irregularities of such articles of food, etc.

The fish, fruit, vegetables, etc., which are usually peddled about the streets in carts and wagons, are seldom found so good as those offered for sale in the public markets, they being either the refuse of the markets, unfit to be offered by the respectable dealer, or happens to be a glut, or very large quantities offered; and, even then, their selections are generally of those which sell at the lowest price; then, in their sales through the streets, their false-bottomed measures, short weights, or their stale or unfit articles, are detected by examination; they are off, and not to be found, until the frauds and their persons are forgotten.

When the purchaser desires to be served through orders


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by the butcher, or others, it is best that they should have such latitude or choice of sending the purchaser that which they may have in the best condition for immediate use. If it be for a roast, it should be either a rib, sirloin, or other piece of beef; or leg, loin, saddle, or shoulder of mutton; or fore or hind quarter of lamb; or fillet, loin, shoulder, or breast of veal; or turkey, capons, chickens, venison, partridges, or grouse, etc. If for a boil, a leg of mutton, rump or round, plate, navel, or brisket of corned beef; and the same, in fact, with all the various dishes.

Without particular joints, or other articles, are ordered for an arranged or "dinner-party," it is then best, as well as proper, to give notice a day or two before, that the butcher, or other, may prepare a particular, prime, or choice article, such as may not only please the purchaser, but will give the butcher, or other dealer, some satisfaction--as it is gratifying to the conscientious dealer to hear that his joints or other articles were praised, as it is to those who pay for that which is acceptable and pleasing to them.

> DOMESTIC OR TAME ANIMALS.

The domestic or tame animals which are usually prepared by the butchers into meat, produce one of the chief articles of food in our daily supplies; and the first among these animals stands the ox, one of the richest gifts to man, being useful to the farmer as a faithful worker, a great assistant in enriching his land, and then as a mill to grind his surplus fodder into beef, while every thing about him, from his hoofs to his horns, is profitable for some purpose or other.

Nearly all of these animals, while living, are known by the names given to them by our Anglo-Saxon fathers; but, when slaughtered and dressed, their flesh assumes another name, as the ox, with its varieties--the bullock, steer, cow, heifer, stag, and bull--are changed to beef; sheep, consisting


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of the wether, ewe, stag, buck or ram, are changed to mutton; calf, to that of veal; hog, i.e., pig, shoat, barrow, sow, stag, hog, and boar, to that of pork. The same changes will also apply to some species of wild animals.

Beef, mutton, lamb, veal, and pork, are usually found throughout the year, in its various seasonable preparations, in all the public markets, and they may be reasonably considered "always in season;" but there are certain months in the year when each are found in greater perfection than at other periods of the year, although, when a sound, healthy animal has been properly fed and prepared, the flesh will be found to be excellent eating in any part of the year. The additional advantage of a cool atmosphere (not freezing the flesh), permitting it to hang for several days, or even weeks, such flesh as beef, mutton, lamb, venison, etc., will render them not only tender, but also add much to the richness of their flavor. I may here also add, that the flesh of all animals, poultry, and game (drawn), is much better in the warm weather, when it can be placed in a cool cellar; a deep well (tied in a linen bag, and hung by a rope near the water), a refrigerator, or an ice-house, for a day or two, will render the flesh cool and firm enough for good eating.

When it is necessary to send or carry any kind of fresh provisions great distances--such as butcher-meat, poultry, game, or fish--either article should first be kept in a refrigerator, or other cold place, until thoroughly cooled, then wrapped in a coarse linen cloth, around which should be placed cabbage-leaves (or other green leaves), and the whole again wrapped and tied up in a coarse cloth, and placed in a basket, when the articles may be carried from six to ten hours without the danger of becoming sour or tainted. Poultry, game, or fish should be drawn, and a piece of charcoal, wrapped in a thin linen rag, be inserted into the drawn parts; as the intestines, when left in, are apt to give the flesh a disagreeable flavor.

Beef and mutton are usually found best from November


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to May, from the fact that those animals producing this flesh are then generally "grain or stall fed," although those fed, or which are fattened, on roots, pumpkins, or grass, produce good, sweet, and tender meats; but it has not the weight, substance, or heart that is found in "stall-fed" meat. From a letter written to B. P. Johnson, Esq., Secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society, found in their "Transactions" (1852, vol. xii., p. 282), the following extract refers to this subject: "You are aware, no doubt, that the greatest quantity of 'barrelled beef' sent to foreign markets is packed in the West. Great portions are of young cattle, fattened on grass, principally of a quick and large growth, and are what we New York butchers call 'grass-fed beef." The beef when fresh will eat soft, tender, juicy, and sweet, but will not have the delicious flavor, solidity, firmness, weight, or the heart or nourishment that the stall-fed (with grain) beef has. It appears to me, as soon as the salt touches "grass-fed beef" it draws back, shrinks into a smaller compass, and changes to a dark color, as if there was not firmness or solidity to resist the action of the salt; and when boiled, especially if salted a long time, will shrink very much, leaving it tasteless, juiceless, without heart or substance, and, when cut, of a dark color. "Stall-fed beef," on the contrary, is like corn-fed pork, which has the appearance (when properly cured) of being firmer, brighter, plumper, or has a swelled look, as if the well-mixed fat protected the lean parts of the flesh. We seldom hear of farmers, or others, salting down "grass or milk fed pork." They pen them up, and feed as much corn, generally, as the animal will take, for sometimes months before slaughtering; and when they are salted--I quote an old saying--"Put one pound of corn-fed pork in the pot, it comes out two," which will apply to "stall-fed beef."

Animals in sound health, which have been fairly fed, will have a layer of fat between the skin and the flesh or muscles. This may be termed the outside fat or back fat.


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The fat will also be mixed in and through the muscles themselves, according to the quantity and quality of the feeding. When highly fed the flesh increases, the back fat thickens, the muscles become marbled with small particles of fat throughout the body, and a large collection of fat around the kidneys, which butchers call suet, to designate it from the common meat or flesh fat.

I may here observe, that it is artificial or over-feeding that produces the prize, choice, and extra-large fine cattle, sheep, etc., sometimes exhibited at our fairs and cattle markets.

> BEEF.

In relation to the best cattle for beef, the question may properly be asked, Which among the varieties of neat-cattle will generally produce the best or choicest eating beef?

This point, I am well aware, many of our most respectable butchers, epicures, and others, will honestly differ in. I, however, shall present the experience which has brought me in contact with all sorts and sizes, shades and colors, and not only by hundreds, but by thousands, from the poorest, toughest "old bull," used for jerked-beef, to feed the slaves of the West Indies, to that of the choicest--the winners of many first-prizes--which have been so elaborately prepared, both to tickle the palates of the many epicures and lovers of good beef, and also to gain the admiration of thousands. Notwithstanding this, my observations may not be correct; they, however, are my convictions. I therefore proceed to place them in the order as they appear, as follows:

First--Spayed Heifer, from four to seven years old.

Second--Steer or bullock (never worked), from four to six years old.

Third--Free Martin (or barren heifer), not over eight years old.

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Fourth--Ox,	from five to eight years old.
Fifth--Heifer,	" three to four "
Sixth--Cow,	" " to eight "
Seventh--Stag,	" " to " "
Eighth--Bull,	" two to six "

In the above arrangement I have placed the Spayed Heifer first--from four to seven years old--as generally affording the best and choicest beef. I mean, of course, with the same breed, care, and partaking of the same feeding. My reasons for this are: that she is more docile and quiet, a gentler disposition, not apt to roam or run so much as the common heifer or steer, and therefore she will naturally flesh and thrive faster, while her nerves, muscles, or flesh and fat, are rendered more tender from her general quietude. I do not pretend to assert that this quiet manner of growing beef will produce that which shall be the most nutritious and wholesome, because this question must be left to scientific research; my wish here is to show that which shall prove the most profitable, tender, and well-tasted beef.

The usual appearance of the above-described Spayed Heifer, or fine steer, beef, when first cut with a knife, or afterwards, when it has laid together against or on marble, a dish, etc., it will be found to be quite a dark red color; but the action of the air, on being exposed to it, in five minutes after will change its color to a clear cherry red.

This beef will also have a juicy or sappy appearance, with a fine smooth grain to the touch, and in cold weather (or if it has been thoroughly cooled by the aid of ice) it should present a well-mixed or marbled appearance. The fat, both outside and through the muscles, presents a clear, straw-colored appearance, and that on the outside should entirely cover the back of the loin and ribs, in some parts not less than half an inch. The kidney-fat, or suet, should be so large, or so well filled up under or inside the loin, especially the thin end, that the whole sirloin (when cut up), suet, or kidney-fat, down, will lay nearly on a level; or, in other words, the thin end should appear nearly as thick as the


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thick or rump end when laid on a bench or block to be cut up.

The suet should be of a brighter shade than the meat or muscle fat, dry and hard, break or crumble easily, and at the same time show but little fibre through it. When greasy or oily, or tough and full of tough fibre, small in quantity, is a certain indication that the animal has been improperly fed, overdriven, or brought from a great distance, and therefore the quality of the beef is deteriorated by rendering it more tough, dry, and tasteless.

Ox and cow beef, when in good condition, will show their flesh and fat of a darker color; that of the ox, more particularly, will have an open and a coarser grain, as well as hard, tough cartilages, sinews, ligaments, and muscle, less flesh according to the quantity of bone, and if the animal has been always kept in a good fat condition, the flesh will not be, or eat so tender nor so juicy or fine-flavored as one (not too old) which has been worked down in flesh, then turned into fine pasture with a "summer's run," taken up and stall-fed for two, three or four months, when all the newly made, or growth of flesh, will be a much more tender, a rich cutting, and also well-flavored beef, than the preceding; but still the old nerves and muscle is not replaced, but left behind, and show themselves, more particularly in the pieces which are called plate, navel, and brisket pieces. If, however, the animals (old or young) are poor, then when slaughtered their flesh will show little or no fat on the back and through the muscles, and will also be of a darker color, quite dry looking, very little kidney-fat or suet, and the kidney itself not well covered; and this kind of beef will be usually quite hard, dry, and not well-flavored eating.

Stag-beef is usually found more fleshy than the ox or steer: of a dusky red, close-grained; and unless the animal has been well fed the flesh will be quite tough and somewhat strongly flavored. If, however, the stag has been altered when quite young, it will much improve the quality


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of the flesh. Their horns are generally thicker and shorter than those of the steer or ox.

Bull-beef is the poorest eating of all beef, especially an old, poor, worn-out bull. They are always heavy-fleshed, especially in the neck and buttock. The color of the flesh is sometimes almost black, usually tough, with a strong rank scent or flavor, especially when it is fresh killed; although some months in the year a fine, fat young bull will keep hunger off, but will never be choice eating.

All animals should be killed when they are in the coolest state, or when respiration is the least active. Their flesh then will keep much longer fresh, and be more beautiful, sweet, and healthful; but when killed in a heated condition, or immediately after a hard drive, the flesh will take longer to cool through, spoil sooner, and the flesh and fat will have a feverish, dark look (caused from its being full of blood), and of course it will not be so inviting or considered so healthy.

The animal for beef, after having been killed and dressed, is called a carcass of beef; the one-half (a hind and fore quarter), a side of beef; and the separate quarters, a hind-quarter of beef and a fore-quarter of beef. The same terms will also apply to mutton, lamb, veal, pork, or, in fact, to almost all animals.

The whole carcass, before being "split down," or divided through the back, has been occasionally roasted whole, here, as well as many other places, usually to celebrate some great event. I have witnessed several public occasions in this city when the roasting of an ox was one of the great features, which, of course, took place on some public ground, and, five times out of six, part of the carcass would be invariably spoiled or tainted, as it appeared almost impossible to apply the heat so as to roast the inside of the thick parts; and the consequence was, that it would be about half-roasted--some portions burnt, and the greater part heated just enough to make it turn sour or spoiled, and, of course, unfit to be eaten. No doubt, large iron spits


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or skewers could be introduced or forced through the thick parts, which, when properly heated, would produce the desired object.

The first account of an "Ox-Roasting," which has come under my notice, would now seem a very curious and expensive affair, as it happened in the latter part of the year 1727, on the "King's Birthday," in the then fashionable city of Bath, England. This account is found in the New York Gazette (January 29, 1728), which ushers the day in as follows:

"At four o'clock in the Morning, the Bells struck out; a Bonfire was lighted, and a whole Ox set a roasting, with a Quantity of Liquor, and Huzzas to his Majesty's Health. At 6 the Drums beat the young Gentleman Volunteers to arms; by 8, an Hundred and Sixty assembled themselves together at the Colonel's House; by 10, they were ready to march, but first every Man drank a Glass of Brandy to his Majesty's Health. The Officers were extremely rich in their Apparel--Velvet, Embroidery, Gold and Silver Laces; the Men with fine Caps, Cockades, Holland Shirts, Silver and Gold Ribbons, Shoulder-knots, fine Scarlet Cloth Breeches, richly laced white Stockings, red Tops to their Shoes; the Slings to their Pieces had this Motto: 'God save King George the Second.' By 12, they marched through the best part of the town, with two Sword-Bearers, a sett of Morris-Dancers, and Martial Musick before them; then came to the Market-place, where they drew up in Order for Fire. Wine was brought, and every Officer charged his Glass; the King, Queen, and Royal Family went round distinct, with a Volley at each Health; the Glasses were thrown over their Heads; and in other parts of the town they did the same. Then Captain Goulding repeated this Verse, extempore:

In spite of Legions of Infernal Devils below,

To ye Powers above, supream Divine.

Let George in the Center our Standard be,

And his Queen the great Caroline

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"One Colonel Edward Collins, that keeps the White-Hart Inn, and Captain Thomas Goulding, Jeweller in the Walks, Captain James Warriner, Bookseller in the Walks, Lieutenant Collins, Woolen-Draper in the Churchyard, Lieutenant Taylor, Sword-Cutter in the Churchyard, and three more young Gentlemen of the Town-Officers, which makes 8 in Number, that gave the Ox and all the charges thereto. They drew to the Beef when roasting, with Handfuls of Silver, each Officer, and obliged the Cook to stuff it into the Shoulders and Neck; and Captain Goulding, Jeweller, stuffed above an Hundred true stones into the Buttocks of the Ox, several Diamonds, Rubies, Saphires, Emeralds, Garnets, Amethists, and Topasses. At two, the Ox was ready, brought to the Table, put into a Dish 12 Foot long and 6 wide, made on purpose. They dined in the Public Market-House; but the stuffing made the Mob so furious that they flung themselves over the Heads of the Officers, into the Dish, and stood over their Shoes in Gravy; and one was stuffed into the Belly of the Ox, and almost stifled with Heat and Fat. The Grease flew about to that Degree which made the Officers quit the Table, or all their Cloaths must have been Spoiled. They stopt and looked on their Proceedings till three; then they all Marched to the Colonels, and staid till four. They went out again on their Procession. At five, the candles begun to light; at 6, the town was illuminated. They went into the Colonel's Quarters, near Seven, with Huzzas--'King George for ever!'--where there was great Quantities of Wine and Beer drank to his Majesty's Health, and all his loving Subjects in his extended Dominions. At Eleven, the Drums beat 'Go to bed, Tom!' and all departed in Peace after Pleasure."

The following figure represents the form of a Spayed Heifer, which is found marked with lines, numbers, and letters, showing where the several joints or parts of the animal for beef are taken from, and how to cut the quarters up in the common manner--as cut in the city of New York. Those marked with the letter S are commonly used for


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steaks of the best, middling, and poorest kinds. The numbers on the top of the back denote the number of ribs in each "roasting-piece;" while those numerically numbered


[Illustration: An illustration of an animal with numbered sections relating to various cuts of beef. See text for description of numbered sections.]

designate the common name of each part, as used in the cities of New York and Brooklyn, followed by those of Boston and Philadelphia--the two latter, however, as near as can be given, from the marked joints in the foregoing figure.

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New York and Brooklyn.	Boston.	Philadelphia.
1. S Hip sirloin or thick sirloin.	Part of the rump or hook bone.	Pinbone sirloin.
2. Second-cut ribs or middle ribs.	Second prime-ribs.	Middle-rib cut.
3. S. Small end sirloin.	Sirloin.	Sirloin.
4. First-cut rib or first rib-pieces.	Fore-rib or first prime-rib.	First-rib cut.
5. Third-cut ribs or thick ribs.	Third prime-rib.	Third-rib cut.
6. First-cut chuck ribs.	First chuck-rib.	Best chuck-rib
7. S. Second-cut chuck rib.	Second chuck-rib.	Chuck-rib cut.
8. S. Cross rib.	Leg or shoulder-of-mutton piece.	Boler-piece.
9. S. third-cut chuck rib or chuck-piece.	Chuck-piece.	Chuck-piece.
10. S. Rump of beef.	Aitch or edgebone (part of).	Tall end rump.
11. Socket or face rump.	Rump (part of).	Rump-piece (part of).
12. First-cut round.	Round.	Round.
13. Second-cut round.	Leg ran.	Round (part of)
14. Top of sirloin.	Thick Flank.	Cut with Sirloin Steaks.
15. S. First-cut neck or neck-piece.	Neck-piece.	Neck-cut.
16. S. Second-cut neck or neck-piece.	"	"
17. Plate-piece.	Rattle-Ran or Runner piece.	Plate-piece.
18. Navel-piece.	Navel end of brisket.	Thin end of brisket.
19. Brisket-piece.	Butt end of brisket.	Thick end of brisket.
20. Shoulder clod.	Clod (part of).	Clod (part of).
21. Flank-piece.	Thin flank.	Flank.
22. Third cut neck or neck-piece.	Neck-piece.	Neck.
23. Leg of beef or leg.	Shank.	Leg.
24. Shin of beef or shin.	Shin.	Shank.

In presenting the above names, as it were, belonging to each city, I was somewhat puzzled to procure, from numerous inquiries, those which appeared to be the most common ones; although there were some which all appeared to agree upon, then again, no two were alike; some had been always used to one name, while others had another, and if I had given all it would have been quite difficult for the buyer, or even the seller to have become reconciled to the large number, so I concluded to adopt those which appeared to have


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the most intelligent friends. I also found that many foreign butchers had not only brought their countries' customs of cutting up meats, but also their names of the joints; and then, again, there were others in the same markets who have different ways of cutting, and they also have adopted names which appeared to have been known only to themselves. I have, however, a hope that the following wood-cuts may assist the eye to distinguish the most prominent of the above-named joints, and also to know how to use them, or, rather, what dishes they are severally and generally used for; and, therefore, we will proceed to cut up, first, the different quarters of beef.

The hind-quarters are usually considered the choice quarters, as from them are cut or taken the large and famous "Baron of Beef," which the English hold in the highest estimation as the crowning dish for the Christmas dinner. This joint is seldom prepared in this country, but it is cut much like a saddle of mutton; that is, by leaving the two sirloins together; when being dressed, the hind-quarters of the animal are not separated, but cut so as to saddle or baronize them, by taking off the buttocks, rumps, sockets, tops of sirloins, and a part of the suet, which leaves almost a square-looking piece, first known in England as the baron of beef; and this enormous piece is roasted whole.

The principal dish, from time immemorial, for the sovereigns of England at their Christmas dinner is the "Royal Baron of Beef." In an English print I read that "it was this year (1854) cut from a fine Highland ox, fed by Prince Albert, and weighed eight hundred and forty pounds. It was put down before an enormous fire on Saturday afternoon, and for fourteen hours was watched and basted by relays of assistants under the head cook, after which it was trimmed and decorated, with the holly and mistletoe apparently sprouting from the outside fat of the meat."

I also find the following advertisement for the Christmas festivities: "A Baron of Beef will be roasted on Wednesday next at the Merchants' Dining Rooms, Lancaster Buildings,


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Exchange-street, East Liverpool. Will be placed on the table at one o'clock," etc.

In this city I have found several instances where this great dish was prepared and served, and a few of these evidences of the fact are now in my possession in the shape of old bills of fare. About the first found on my list was given by William Sykes, who kept one of the best public houses at the period of which this "baron of beef" was given, then called the "New York Coffee House," and located at the corner of William-street and Slote-lane (Beaver-street.)

This took place on the 8th of October, 1823, in honor of the union of the Erie Canal waters with the Hudson River, on which occasion he served up "a 'baron of beef' measuring nearly four feet in length, and weighing one hundred and twelve pounds. It was placed upon a marble slab and surmounted with a white silk flag, bearing the arms of the State, and painted for the occasion." Then at the Agricultural Society's dinner, which took place on Friday, the 31st inst. following, at a place called "Mount Vernon," located on the East River, just above the (Youle's) shot-tower. Another "baron of beef," weighing but one hundred and nine pounds, was furnished by Thomas Gibbons, No. 60 Fulton Market.

The year following (1824), the corporation gave a dinner, on Monday, the 5th of July, in the City-Hall, when a large baron of beef was on the table; and the next year they gave another, quite as large as the previous one, on Monday, the 4th of July. I am also much indebted to Charles H. Webb, Esq., the almoner of St. George Society, who informs me that this Society has had several barons of beef served up at their Anniversary dinners, which were principally prepared by Mr. and Mrs. William Niblo. The following incident will show one of the mistakes which occurred with perhaps the largest and finest baron of beef ever prepared for, or attempted to be roasted in New York, or elsewhere. This, no doubt, occurred from the anxiety of Mrs. Niblo to outdo all former efforts of giving this choice piece in the greatest perfection. She gave the order


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and her instructions to Mr. Andrew C. Wheeler (butcher, No. 19 Fulton Market), that it should be the largest and finest that he could procure. It was taken from a very choice animal, and, when trimmed, weighed some two hundred and eighty pounds then sent to Niblo--who then kept his famous garden and hotel corner of Broadway and Prince-street--the day before the grand dinner of the St. George Society was to take place. The same night, late, Mrs. Niblo was about to put it down to roast. She found it so large and unwieldy that she could not spit it, let alone roast it; so, about midnight, she sent for Mr. Wheeler, who came, and, after cutting some one hundred pounds or more off of it, they were enabled to get it spitted, and near enough to the fire to commence this great roast for the next afternoon's dinner. They had, however, almost given it up in despair before they succeeded; but it was said that it was superbly cooked and served up, as every thing else was with which Mrs. Niblo had to do.

Dividing the baron of beef exactly through the centre of the loins, or back-bone, produces two sirloins--a name which has become extensively known and commonly associated with this choice part of the carcass. It is said that the name originated with Charles II., who jocularly knighted that part of the animal Sir-Loin.

We will again turn to the different quarters of beef, and show the most prominent joints marked on the figure separately; but perhaps a brief explanation, showing how and where to obtain these joints, which to cut off first, and how to handle or lay the different quarters in the most convenient way to separate or cut them up, is first in order.

The hind-quarter is first laid down on a strong table, back down; the buttock and flank, together, are first separated, the other part turned over on the other (suet) side, when the knife divides the rump-piece from the sirloin. These two pieces--rump-piece and buttock--will be subdivided hereafter; in the mean time, we will show that, if the sirloin-piece is wanted or sold for the use of hotels


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or steamers, it is either sent whole or cut into roasts or steaks, as desired.

The Boston and Philadelphia butchers, after cutting off the buttock and thin-end sirloin, are prepared to cut their fine rump-steaks, which are much the same as our sirloin-steak, only cut more across the hip (or pin) bone. Many of them remove part of the bone.

We will now divide the sirloin-piece into portions suitable for families who want roasting-pieces, which are cut of all


[Illustration: An illustration of a cut of beef.]

sizes: the thick part, containing the hip-bone, will give the largest piece, while the small end cuts two small pieces, say from eight to twelve pounds each. The best of these is shown in the above figure, and usually called the "middle-cut sirloin."

The other part, adjoining the ribs, is usually known as the thin-end sirloin, being much like the middle-cut sirloin, but with less tenderloin, and is sometimes preferred for a small family, or those who seek it for its close proximity to the prime ribs. It is also cut up into small-loin or porter-house steaks.

The thick part of the sirloin, by cutting off a few round-bone steaks adjoining the rump side, contains the largest part of the tenderloin, or filet-de-bœuf, which forms a large and choice piece for roasting, from twelve to twenty-five


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pounds in weight. This piece is shown in the figure below, and usually known as the "hip-sirloin."

This choice part of the beef is sometimes termed the thick-end sirloin; and, when it is not used for roasting, it is cut into three kinds of the finest dinner-steaks, all commonly called sirloin steaks, but separately. The first and


[Illustration: An illustration of a cut of beef.]

best, containing the largest quantity of tenderloin, is shown in the figure on following page, and known as the "hip sirloin-steak," of which there are but two or three in one sirloin.

Next in order is the "flat-bone sirloin-steak" (shown in figure on page 43), of which there are about the same number as the "hip sirloin-steak." This is followed by the same number of the "round-bone sirloin-steak" (shown in figure on page 44), which is cut up to the socket-bone or socket-piece. This latter steak makes an excellent beef-steak-pie, beef-tea, minced collops, etc., as it contains more lean than either of the preceding-named steaks.

I am much indebted to Henry W. Dunshee, Esq., for the following "Origin of Beefsteak:"

"The discovery of the chief sources of human enjoyment has all been