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Title: Miss Corson's Practical American Cookery and Household Management
Author: Corson, Juliet
Publisher: New York, Dodd, Mead & Co.

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> PRACTICAL AMERICAN COOKERY.

> PART I.

> CHAPTER I.

> THE KITCHEN, PANTRY, AND CELLAR.

THE KITCHEN.

THE fitting-up and care of the kitchen have been so often treated by writers upon domestic matters, that comparatively little space need be given to the subject here; only a few outlines which every housekeeper can fill by the exercise of her own taste and judgment. If possible, have the kitchen upon the level of the ground; or, if it must be in the basement of a house, take care that plenty of light and air reach it. If daylight does not flood every corner of it, supply artificial light, even in the daytime; for no domestic operation requires more light than the treatment of food. Painting the wood-work and floor a light color is of use in this particular. In some of the modern houses where there are elevators, the kitchen and laundry are placed in the top story, greatly to the comfort of all the inmates of the house, who thus escape all odors of cooking and washing.

Equally with light is cleanliness important in the kitchen. The cleaning of floors is considered in the chapter on The Dining-room. The walls of a kitchen should be of some hard finish, either panelled wood, tiles, or plastering which can be covered with whitewash or kalsomine coloring.

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Any lime wash is desirable for the kitchen, because it tends to keep the air pure if frequently applied. The following will be found excellent: Half fill a large pail with quick-lime; pour upon it one gallon of cold water, and stir it until ebullition ceases; then stir in one pint of linseed-oil, and add enough more cold water to make the wash of the consistency of thin paste. Copperas-water used in place of cold water will make the wash disinfectant to a certain degree. The use of skim-milk instead of the first cold water will make a wash which will resist the action of water. Apply the wash with a broad flat brush, moving it up and down the walls with even strokes. The so-called White House wash is made by slacking half a bushel of quicklime with boiling water, keeping it covered until ebullition ceases; meantime a peck of salt is dissolved in warm water, and three pounds of ground rice are made into a thin paste by boiling it with water; a pound of clean glue is dissolved in warm water at the same time, and half a pound of Spanish whiting is powdered; all these ingredients are mixed together, with the addition of enough boiling water to make the mixture properly liquid, and it is then strained, cooled, and allowed to stand three days in a covered vessel. When the wash is required for use, it is heated in a double kettle, and applied hot with a flat brush. This wash resists the action of severe weather, and will serve in place of paint for walls, or wood or stone work. It may be used for the kitchen woodwork if desired.

If the kitchen is already painted, and only needs cleaning, use hot water and soap with a flannel rag. The addition of a handful of borax or four tablespoonfuls of liquid ammonia to a gallon of hot water will make a solution which will clean paint and glass quickly and well without soap. Wash oil>-cloths by first rubbing them over with a cloth wet in equal parts of milk and water, and then with another wet in warm


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water, and finally with a soft dry cloth; wet only a small place at once, and never use a brush if it can be avoided. Keep oilcloths clean ordinarily by wiping them first with a damp cloth and then with a dry one; but do not apply soap, or use a harsh brush or a mop. When the paint has been scrubbed off oilcloths, and their texture is still unbroken, they can be restored by having a coat of good oil paint laid over them about once a year. Some durable bright color is preferable; and the effect can be heightened by having a solid color for the centre, and a contrasting hue for the border. Rubbing with a few drops of ammonia on a damp cloth, and subsequent polishing with dry cloth, will clean windows easily and well. Kitchen-tables should be cleaned every day, with hot water in which either borax or washing-soda is dissolved. The sink should be flushed every day with boiling water, and a handful of washing-soda thrown upon the strainer over the drain-pipe before the greasy water is poured down it after a meal is over. If this point is attended to, and no scraps of refuse or grounds of tea or coffee are allowed to pass into the drain-pipe, housekeepers will escape that troublesome and expensive plumber's job of cutting out the drain-pipe. Every week in winter, and oftener in summer, a cupful of quicklime or of chloride of lime, or a pailful of hot copperas-water, should be thrown upon the drain. Copperas-water is a valuable disinfectant, free from the objectionable odor and physical effect of lime; it is made by placing the copperas in the bottom of a barrel, and covering it with water; enough copperas should be used to be plainly seen always upon the bottom of the barrel. The water, heated and poured in drains, sinks, and water-closets, by the pailful, once or twice a week, will keep them entirely free from dangerous emanations: note this when there is a closet upon the lower floor, or near the kitchen.

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After every meal the towels and dish-cloths should be washed in hot water with soap and a little borax, and they should then be well rinsed and dried in the sun or air before using them again. Directions are given elsewhere for washing dishes.

If kitchen utensils are tarnished and discolored, put them into a large boiler containing hot water and a handful of washing-soda, and let them boil for a few moments; then scour them with any of the good kitchen soaps made of fine white silicious matter. Very fine ashes, sand, or brick-dust sifted, will answer for scouring iron or copper. For tin and japanned or enamelled ware, use powdered whiting, applying it with a wet cloth, and then polishing with a dry one or with chamois. Knives are cleaned with powdered bath-brick.

To clean the stove, first wash it with hot water and soda after it is cold, if it is greasy; and then blacken it with any good stove-polish,according to the directions accompanying the polish, and rub the steel fittings of the stove with emery-paper. To build a fire, first let down the grate, and take up the ashes and cinders carefully to avoid raising a dust, sifting the cinders to use in building the fire; brush the soot and dust out of the upper part of the stove, and from the flues which can be reached; be sure that all parts of the ovens and hot-boxes are clean; if there is a waterback attached to the stove, see that it is filled with water; if it is connected with water-pipes, be sure in winter that they are not frozen; brush up the hearth-stone. Lay the fire as follows: Put a few handfuls of dry shavings or paper in the bottom of the grate; upon them, some small sticks of pine wood laid across each other; then a few larger sticks, and some cinders free from ashes; a few small lumps of coke or coal may be mixed with the cinders. Open all the draughts of the stove, close all the covers, and light the


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fire; when the cinders are lighted, add fresh coke and coal gradually and repeatedly until a clear, bright fire is started; then partly close the draughts. To keep up a fire, add fuel often, a little at once, in order not to check the heat: letting the fire burn low, and then replenishing it abundantly, is a wasteful method, because the stove grows so cold that most of the fresh heat is lost in raising the temperature again to the degree necessary for cooking. Removing the covers of the stove, to place a utensil nearer the fire, lowers the heat of the entire surface, and affects the temperature of the ovens; therefore flat-bottomed cooking-utensils are the best, for they fit close upon the covered top of the stove. Black iron saucepans cook more quickly than bright tin ones; coppers retain the heat, even when brightly polished, longer than any other metal, and are much the most durable. All these points of excellence are treated in detail in the author's "Cooking-school Text-book," to which the reader who desires further information is referred. When the fuel used is wood, the fire should be built and managed much in the same way. Hard wood is preferable to pine for cooking-purposes. Charcoal is a good cooking-fuel, but it is generally expensive.

All the kitchen refuse should be burned, first draining it from the slops; and then, when there is no cooking going on, it should be put upon the back of the fire, and all the draughts thrown open so that it can be quickly and entirely consumed. If there is no accumulation of rubbish in the kitchen, there will probably be no more croton-bugs or roaches than can be destroyed by the persistent use of powdered borax and insect-powder.

THE PANTRY.

Although cleanliness in the kitchen is generally enforced in well-regulated households, the same care is not always


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extended to those necessary repositories of food, the pantry, the refrigerator, and the cellar. The drains too often contaminate the latter, all kinds of food are gathered indiscriminately in the ice-box, and the pantry has too many dark corners. Then, again, the pantry is too often located so near the kitchen as to receive more or less heat from that room. This access of heat should be guarded against as far as possible, because it so interferes with the preservation of food. When it is impossible to have the pantry or store-room a little removed from the kitchen, the two rooms can be separated by double doors, or at least by a door furnished with a spring which will always close it.

The pantry should be so placed as to receive plenty of light and air to keep it free from dampness, but it should not be so exposed to the sun as to make it hot enough at any season to affect its contents. If there is not a storeroom proper,a large light closet should be devoted to its uses. Shelves should be arranged around the walls, those upon two sides at least permitting barrels to be placed under them; hooks should be placed upon the edges of some of the upper shelves, within easy reach, for the hanging of bunches of herbs and small bags, or nets containing fruit. A cool, dark section should be set apart for preserves and jellies; and, if they are put up in stone jars or buckets, they should be labelled, so that the contents can be known without opening them. The arrangement of shelves, boxes, jars, and barrels will suggest itself to any tidy person, as it affords the easiest access to their contents. As far as possible, solid cases should be used for stores of all kinds, because paper used for wrapping them is so readily torn, and is no protection against mice or insects. The ordinary contents of the storeroom include dry groceries, preserves, pickles, bread, and cake; the latter should be kept in close boxes of wood or tin, which should be frequently cleaned. Hot food should


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never be put into the storeroom, because it gives out steam, and thus favors dampness, and also because it slightly heats the atmosphere.

THE REFRIGERATOR.

In most towns, ice-boxes or refrigerators are obtainable already made, but there is some discretion to be used in their selection. In choosing one, care should be taken that the frame is of hard wood, susceptible of a smooth finish, because a soft rough surface attracts and retains moisture and injurious odors from the water used in cleansing it, and from the ice, as well as from the food itself. If possible, the entire lining and shelves should be metallic; but, if they are of wood, they should be hard, and a double set should be employed so that some can be drying while the others are in use. Marbleized iron or zinc makes the best metal shelves. No water or sewer pipes should be connected with the ice-box, because poisonous gases readily pass through water. In so-called model apartment-houses, the refrigerator is sometimes connected direct with the drain by a small pipe, to permit the escape of the water caused by the melting of the ice: there could be no surer way devised to imperil the health of the inmates of the apartments. Ice-boxes and refrigerators, large and small, should be cleaned and aired often enough to keep them perfectly free from any odor. Meat, fish, poultry, or game should never be laid upon shelves, but rather hung by hooks or laid upon racks: if the box is too small to permit this, they should be placed upon earthen dishes large enough to prevent contact with the box or shelves. Milk should always be kept in closed jars, even when in the ice-box, for no other substance is so quickly affected by air and surroundings; it absorbs every odor and gas to which it is exposed, and takes on every taint in the atmosphere: therefore, as soon as its first natural heat


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has passed away, it should be strained, and kept in covered vessels, unless it is put into a perfectly clean milk-room sheltered from air and dust. Butter, like milk, readily takes on odors and taint: it should always be kept in covered tubs or jars, with brine or a wet cloth covered with salt over it. It should never be put near fish, meat, or vegetables which can impart any odor to it.

The ice-box should not be kept in a damp place, because dampness will cause the ice to melt, and predispose food to ferment and mould. No steam or furnace pipes or chimney-flues should be near enough to vary its temperature in the least degree, for this in itself is a frequent cause of injury to food. When the weather is variable,it is necessary to closely watch food which is not refrigerated. In the winter, there is less danger to food from decomposition than in summer; but some kinds are impaired by freezing. And then, too, there is always more or less danger of decomposition attending the thawing of frozen meats: they should be thawed at a dry temperature, only a little above the freezing-point, in a well-ventilated room, or in very cold water,--never near the fire, or in a warm kitchen. When meat has once been frozen, it should be kept at that temperature until it is thawed for cooking; for, when once thawed, it is likely to spoil quickly, especially in close, damp weather.

A word in regard to frozen vegetables: they should be placed in cold water to thaw, not exposed to the action of heat; but as freezing effects a chemical change in the substance and composition of vegetables,--as, for instance, when it partly changes the starch in potatoes into glucose,--they should generally be protected from frost. Vegetables will be referred to again in treating of the cellar.

As dampness favors decomposition, even at a low temperature, the ice-compartment in refrigerators should be separated from the food-closet by permanent walls, so that


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moisture cannot be directly communicated from ice to food. The only efficient refrigerator is one that thus separates the ice from the food, and has an outlet for the water caused by the melting of the ice. It is a mistake to use this water for drinking or cooking purposes, for it generally contains impurities from the ice. A glass- or porcelain-lined receptacle placed next to the ice-compartment, and filled with water, will cool pleasantly. The vessel should be washed out and filled with fresh water every day, and should be entirely closed from the air; for water impregnated with odors or vapors from food, or with those which pervade living-rooms, is unfit to drink. As water standing in open pitchers for any length of time loses all its natural gases, and absorbs the deleterious properties in the atmosphere, so, equally, that which is exposed to the odors of food in the refrigerator becomes injurious.

In cool weather, meat, fish, game, and poultry may be kept in a wire safe for a reasonable length of time. The same general care should be given to the safe which the refrigerator requires. Its frame should be of hard wood; the racks or shelves, of metal, marbleized or galvanized iron; and the wire-cloth painted as often as it shows any trace of rust, because a rough, rusted metallic surface will attract and retain deleterious odors, and particles of decomposed food.

THE CELLAR.

In cities, cellars are generally quite underground, and too often contaminated by sewer- and drain-pipes. It is impossible to take too much care to guard against this danger. To a great ,extent, dampness can be obviated in cellars, by flooring them with concrete, and ventilating them thoroughly: for this purpose there should be movable windows, in good working-order, with direct communication with the outer air.

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Cellars cannot always be lighted without artificial means, but they can be kept clean and dry. A little copperas dissolved in the water used for making lime-wash, or some good disinfectant, can always be used to purify the air; and care can be taken that no dirt of any kind accumulates. As this subject is treated exhaustively in the author's work on "Diet for Invalids," no more need be said here. If fruit or vegetables are kept in cellars, they should be examined frequently, and all spoiled portions removed. The darkness necessary to the preservation of some vegetables can be secured by covering them with old clean blankets or carpet, or, better still, with several thicknesses of newspaper, which can be thrown away when they bear any trace of mildew: the blanket or carpet should be dried frequently, and washed when it becomes at all mildewed. The temperature of cellars where vegetables are kept should be regulated so that they can neither freeze, nor spoil from excessive heat: a safe temperature is about 50° Fah.

When vegetables are kept in bins, they should be made of hard smooth wood with covers; otherwise, barrels and boxes with covers should be used. If those roots and tubers which are to be kept until late in the winter are packed in layers, in sand or clean moss or excelsior-shavings, they will keep fresh and good in a dry, cool cellar. Apples may be packed in this way, or in dry sawdust, or wrapped in soft paper, and stored in barrels or boxes. Winter pears may be laid between the folds of an old clean blanket, on a shelf, in a dry cellar. Cranberries are best preserved by keeping them covered with water, and lemons do well in the same way; care should be taken that the water does not freeze, and it should be changed often enough to maintain its freshness. Parsnips are generally left in the ground during the winter, but they may be kept in sand in the cellar. If turnips are kept in sand, they are less apt to become corky


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than when exposed to the air. Celery keeps well, quite buried in the sand. Squashes and pumpkins require a cool, dry place. Cabbages may be laid in heaps, or packed in barrels, with the root up, and a thick covering of their own outer leaves upon the top, under the cover of the barrel or bin. Onions should be spread upon shelves, or kept in well-aired baskets. Beets should be buried in sand, as also carrots. Potatoes keep well in barrels in a cool, dark part of the cellar. As the spring approaches, or if they begin to show signs of germination at any season, they may be put into baskets with handles, and placed in boiling water for three minutes; after that they are to be thoroughly drained, and then returned to the cellar: the heat of the water destroys the young sprouts, without injuring the rest of the potato for subsequent cooking. Sweet potatoes require a very dry place, but do not keep any length of time; so that, unless the family is large, they should be bought only in small quantities. All the vegetables which are used green, or in an immature condition, should be dried, canned, or preserved in their season. Radishes and mushrooms may be raised during the winter, in warm cellars; and parsley and lettuce, in window-boxes, at any temperature suitable for house-plants; mustard and cress will grow from seed within a few days in window-boxes.

THE CARE OF MILK AND BUTTER.

Reference has already been made to the importance of taking special care of the milk and butter intended for daily consumption in the household; but where one or two cows are kept, and a little butter is made, a few more directions may be useful.

It is as important that the cows and their shed should be kept perfectly clean, and that they are properly fed, as that their milk should receive attention; and the housekeeper


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should see to this, although such details belong properly to those having care of the cows. When cows have been fed upon cabbage or turnips, or have eaten onions in the fields, in such a way that the taste is perceptible in the milk, add to it, as soon as it is drawn from the cows and strained, one quart of boiling water to each two gallons of milk, or have a piece of saltpetre the size of a pea powdered and put into each pail before milking the cows. Either of these methods will generally destroy the foreign flavor, without injuring the milk; but if the cows are shut up so that they have no access to such food for six or eight hours, the milk will be sweet. The cows should be milked kindly and gently, and not immediately after any violent exercise; and, when possible, always by one person who understands their idiosyncrasies, and can get all the milk: if a cow is not milked thoroughly, the quantity will gradually decrease and become poor until the supply ceases altogether. When a cow is unquiet during milking, a piece of rock-salt put into a trough for her to lick will generally keep her quiet; but if she is vicious, her legs must be strapped.

Tin pails, scrupulously clean, are best for milking: if wooden ones are used, they must be of hard, smooth wood, scalded and then rinsed with cold water before being used. The milk should be strained directly it is drawn, and set in a temperature of about 60° Fah. to become cool: milk should always be cooled before it is covered in any way. Deep tin pails, with a handle for lifting, are better for setting milk for cream than the old-fashioned shallow pans: they should always be kept scrupulously clean, being scalded, aired, and sunned after each time of use. Cream should be skimmed according to the season, in twelve, twenty-four, or thirty-six hours. If the milk sours under the cream, no harm is done; but it should not be allowed to stand before skimming, until the curd and whey separate.

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When enough cream is ready from one skimming to make butter, it need only be set away without disturbance until it becomes slightly sour,--from twenty-four to forty-eight hours: but when it has to be accumulated, an ounce of pulverized salt may be put into the bottom of a two- or three-gallon jar; and, every time cream is put in, it should be thoroughly stirred with that already in the jar. Any drops upon the inside of the jar should be wiped off, and it should be kept covered with a piece of gauze. A shallow ladle is best for skimming, and it need not be perforated. No wind should be permitted to blow over the surface of cream while it is rising, and it should be protected from dust. The most cream seems to rise upon milk cooled by ice. Although cream needs to be a little sour before churning, it must not be allowed to become at all bitter: the churning may be done two or three times a week.

Before using the churn, it should be scalded for one minute with boiling water, then emptied, and partly filled with very cold water for five minutes: after that, the water may be poured out, and the cream put into the churn. Very thick cream should be thinned with milk before churning. When the cream froths much in the churn, the butter should be used soon after it is made, because there is some condition of the milk or cream which will prevent the keeping of the butter. Churn with a series of steady, even strokes, about sixty to the minute, and stop when the butter comes in small, firm masses. At some seasons it is necessary to put some very cold milk, or a piece of ice, into the churn before the butter will come; this may be done if it does not begin to appear in about half an hour: butter comes in about half an hour when the cream is at a temperature of about 65° Fah.

When the butter comes, if it is very soft, put ice or very cold water into the churn so that it will harden enough to be taken up. Remove the butter from the churn, to a clean


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table or butter-tray, with a wooden paddle, first wetting both in very cold water. Never use the hands in working butter. With the ladle, cut down through the butter, and press it firmly, to work out the buttermilk; but do not smooth it, because that breaks the grain of the butter. If the weather is warm enough to make the butter soft, put a piece of ice upon it, and trust to the second working to extract the water. When the buttermilk is worked out, spread the butter out on the tray or table, sprinkle over it the finest dairy-salt,--about an ounce of salt to a pound of butter,--and then, using the same cutting motion, thoroughly work the salt into the butter. Some butter-makers add about a quarter of an ounce of fine white sugar to each pound of butter at the first or second working: the sugar is a good corrective to any trace of bitterness in the butter, and helps preserve it. After the salt has been worked into the butter, put it away to harden again. When the butter is hard, repeat the working with the ladle, to work out all the water, and use a cloth repeatedly wrung out of ice-water to pat the butter while working it; do not work long enough to soften the butter, but extract all the moisture, so that a clean surface is presented when cut, with only a slight dew upon it. Then either make it up in pats or rolls, wrap each one in a wet cloth, and sink them in brine, or pack the butter in firkins as directed below. The butter should be of a rich yellow color, sweet and nutty in flavor, and showing a fine close grain when broken, or an even surface slightly bedewed with colorless moisture when cut. Freezing does not impair the taste or keeping-quality of butter: but if it is long exposed to the air, it is apt to become rancid upon the surface; and this rancidity gradually penetrates the entire mass, and develops an acid which is poisonous when brought into contact with any copper surface.

All packed butter should be put into firkins or tubs made of hard wood,--oak or hemlock,--which have been soaked


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in brine for twenty-four hours, and then wiped, and sprinkled with fine salt. Pack the butter down tight and close, and cover the top layer with a cloth wet in brine and sprinkled thickly with fine salt. If the tub is not filled at the first packing, when more butter is ready to put in, remove the cloth, rinse it in cold water, wipe or wash off with cold water any salt which may have fallen upon the butter, pack in what is ready, and again cover it as before with the wet cloth and salt.

A good brine for butter can be made as follows: Dissolve in a gallon of cold water as much fine salt as it will receive,--that is, until salt can be seen upon the bottom of the vessel containing the brine; then put it over the fire, with an ounce of sugar and a level teaspoonful of powdered saltpetre, and let it boil up; after that, cool it, strain it, and use it.

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> CHAPTER II.

> MARKETING.

AS the excellence of a dinner depends as much upon the quality of its materials as upon the skill of the cook, it is incumbent on the good housekeeper to have some knowledge of marketing. If a good cook can do better with poor materials than a poor cook with the best supplies, how great will be the satisfaction in a repast which supplements judicious selection with perfect cookery! The skilled marketer must have experience, but even the youngest beginner can gain some advantage from such clear and explicit description as is presented in this chapter.

The complaint is often made, that the pictures of meat given in cookery-books do not resemble the meat as it appears in market. The pictures given in this work have been carefully engraved from photographs taken from sides of meat ready to be exposed for sale. The lines which indicate the different joints represent the average lines employed in cutting meat by butchers in various parts of the country: relatively the difference is so slight, that in giving lessons in the cutting of meats, in many places, only unimportant variations have been observed, and even these concerned the names rather than the actual forms of the cuts. Individual butchers may vary their cutting-lines a few inches, but the main ones given in the several engravings are accurate enough to serve as a general guide to marketers.

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Before entering upon the detail of meat marketing, a few words may be well said upon the importance of freshness in food of all kinds, and especially when several kinds are used for making one dish, such as a soup or a stew. The least taint in any ingredient will impair the flavor of the dish, and often produce temporary discomfort or positive illness; therefore the marketer should not be tempted to purchase wilted vegetables, or meat upon the verge of spoiling, because the price may be low. In fact, the rule may be accepted, that fair goods command a fair price; the only notable exception being when marketing-days occur only two or three times a week, or at the end of the week, when the food is sold at a reduction towards the close of the day, by dealers who do not wish to take the risk of keeping it. Street-peddlers seldom have fresh wares, even if they give good measure; because they generally buy at a low rate, from dealers whose supplies are upon the verge of spoiling. This is especially the case with fruit: the street-peddlers are most active when the market is glutted with green or over-ripe fruit for which there is no legitimate demand. In some localities, however,--notably in country-places,-- honest small dealers supply their scattered customers by wagon-route, greatly to the housekeepers' convenience: of course the foregoing remarks do not apply to them.

> THE PREPARATION OF MEAT FOR MARKET.

This is a matter requiring close care and nice calculation; and, under the manipulation of skilled slaughterers, all parts of the creature have an actual market value. The finest hair of beef, after thorough cleansing, is used in the manufacture of coarse blankets; the long tuft on the end of the tail is employed in upholstery; the coarse hair is made into mortar; the skin is tanned for leather; the horns are used for combs, knife and umbrella handles, buttons, and various


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other articles of use and fancy; the bones and refuse of the horns and hoofs become fertilizers, or are made into glue; the feet yield neat's-foot oil; the blood and offal are made into fertilizers; all superfluous fat is made into either oleomargarine or oil.

In New York and some other large cities, the butchers employ the Jewish method of slaughtering, which consists of draining the carcass of all the blood. After the animal is killed, the interior is examined to make sure that the meat is in a perfectly healthy condition; and it is then cut up for sale. The intestines and their surrounding fat are removed; the heart, liver, and kidneys being prepared for the retail trade. The layer of fat which surrounds the intestines is stretched over the inner surface of the body, and held in place by wooden skewers, so that it may not contract in cooling: it is this fat which is so excellent in spring lamb. The outer coating of fat, mingled with a thin layer of flesh, is often cut so that in cooling it contracts, and forms fanciful figures on the surface of the meat. The thickness of this outer layer of fat is a safe indication of the condition of the carcass: well-fed animals show thick back-fat, and the kidney-fat or suet is very abundant, while the entire flesh is marbled with small lines of fat. The last joints of the legs are carefully cleaned, and the head is freed from hair and horns.

The entire flesh of the head of beef in this country is generally made into sausage-meat; but in Europe it is sold, either fresh or cured, under the name of ox-cheek: the palate is a special delicacy there, and many dishes are made of the brains. In this country the tongue is generally the most important part of the head, being used fresh, or corned with salt, or pickled and smoked. As a matter of fact, most of the edible viscera can be made into palatable and nutritious dishes; and some of the so-called cheap cuts of meat


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are preferable, on the score of flavor and strength-giving properties, to the most expensive. For instance, the shoulder of mutton is much more delicate than the leg. And the filet or tenderloin of beef, generally the most expensive cut, has less taste and nutriment than any other part of the flesh of the animal: it is simply tender; and that is because it is composed of muscular fibre which is worked but little, and consequently is not as well nourished as those parts that are so exercised as to make their circulation rapid and ample. When we offer the tenderloin of beef to a guest or an invalid, we only give them the most expensive meat, not the best. And so it frequently is with mutton: contrary to the general impression prevailing in this country, the shoulder is the choice portion; in England, where the best mutton in the world is raised, it is that which is set before the guest, while the leg is relegated to the family table as being the more economical and less delicate. It is a favorite maxim among good old-fashioned housekeepers, that only prime cuts of meat are available and of good value. But this is the case only when the family taste insists always upon a roast or a steak: when any variety of fare is acceptable, many of the cheap cuts can be made into delicious dishes; and, when there is a general demand for them, butchers will willingly keep them to meet it, and thus in a measure equalize the price of more expensive cuts.

It is not always that the average late marketer has the opportunity of buying the best meats. In cities, the buyers for large hotels, restaurants, and clubs market very early, or have the choice parts reserved for them. Then, too, every dealer will have his special customers whose wants he endeavors to supply: if he is honest, he will of course give all his customers as good as he has on hand, and they may rely upon his opinion; but there are occasions when the buyer may safely depend upon individual judgment.

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> GOOD POINTS IN MEATS.

A few clearly defined points will enable any ordinarily careful and intelligent person to select a good quality of flesh from what is offered. The best meats are from well-fed, mature animals, which have not been overworked, and the meat of which has been carefully transported from the slaughter-house to the market. A loose texture of flesh in full-grown meats indicates an excess of water, which will cause the meat to shrink in cooking or preserving it in any way. The flesh of grass-fed meat is of this character; while that of "stall-fed" or "corn-fed" animals has a firm, dense fibre, admirably calculated to retain its substance, either under the action of heat in cooking or of salt in curing it. Of the three best-known mature meats, beef has the largest and firmest fibres, and pork has the densest, closest texture; and therefore both are well suited for curing. About one-fifth of the weight of flesh is composed of the solid substances of fibrine, albumen, and gelatine; the residue being the juice of the flesh, which consists of water and some soluble salts that are essential to the preservation of health. It is this juice, of which salted meats are largely deprived, which is too often lost by improper methods of cooking; as in the pounding of beefsteaks, under the erroneous impression that they are thus made tender, when really the labor of mastication saved by the breaking of the fibres is more than handicapped by the loss of the juice entailed by the pounding operation. When the fibre of meat is over-tough, it can be softened by using vinegar during cooking, according to the directions given elsewhere.

The fact is not always known to city marketers, although it is generally well understood by people in the country who kill their own meat, that the flesh of animals and birds is always most tender if cooked while it is yet warm with vitality. Every sportsman who has cooked game in the field or


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camp directly it was killed, has demonstrated this fact. A familiar domestic instance of it is the practice of the famous negro cooks of the South, of cooking chickens before their flesh grows cold after they are killed. If a bird is killed, picked, and cooked at once, it will always be tenderer than if it is allowed to grow cold and stiff. Beef, or any meat which has been killed long enough for the warmth of life to leave it, will be dense and hard of fibre until the stiffness of the muscles consequent upon the loss of vital heat, that causes toughness, has been overcome by that relaxation of the tissues which precedes the beginning of actual decomposition of the flesh. No matter how prime the animal is before killing, after the flesh is once cold it will be hard and tough until this muscular change takes place. As considerable loss in weight is consequent upon the long keeping of meat, butchers are sometimes unwilling to assume it; but they will generally hang meat long enough for it to become tender, if their customers will take it at its first weight.

The flesh of young animals seems tender, because of its softness and looseness of fibre. Its texture is naturally less firm than that of mature creatures, but it is correspondingly less nutritous; and, while it appears to be easily masticated, it is really only less entirely reduced to the condition of pulp which permits the beginning of digestion, because its soft, semi-gelatinous fibres elude the teeth, while the comparatively short time it remains in the mouth does not favor that complete admixture with the saliva which is necessary to the first stage of digestion. This is the reason why such young meats as veal and sucking-pig are not desirable foods for persons whose digestion is impaired. While the flesh of young meats seems thus relatively tender, it is not so acceptable to the palate as that of mature animals in good condition.

A glance will show an experienced marketer the difference


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between good and poor meat. The first has a fresh, bright color, with plenty of back- and kidney-fat, and fine thread-like particles of fat running through the flesh: the odor is sweet, and the general appearance clean. On the other hand, meat in bad condition is dark and dull in color, without the tracery of white fat throughout the flesh and its abundance on the back and about the kidneys; even if the fat is abundant, its color will be yellowish and its consistency soft; the odor will be more or less unpleasant. No amount of washing will restore the excellence of stale or tainted meat, or counteract its poisonous effect upon the system. The fact should be remembered in this connection, that meats which have been kept on the ice, and are then exposed to the action of a warm atmosphere, taint much more quickly than those that have never been iced.

> BEEF.

Good beef is of a clear, bright-red color, veined or marbled with whitish fat, with abundant kidney-fat or suet, and thick back-fat: the fat of a prime creature is of a clear, whitish-yellow color, rather hard and brittle, as contrasted with the dull yellow fat of inferior beef, which is also soft and greasy. The second grade of beef is of a dusky-red color, with scant fat interspersed among the muscular fibre and very little upon the back and kidneys; the odor of the meat is good; and, if it is hung long enough, the flesh will be comparatively tender. Poor beef has little or no back-fat, very scant yellowish kidney-fat, and dark-red, hard flesh; in cooking it, the aid of vinegar will soften the fibres to some extent, but it can never be made entirely good; if the odor is rank and strong, it will always be noticeable.

The carcass of beef as marketed is cut into sides, and these again into fore- and hind-quarters. The engraving show a side of beef with the cutting-lines placed where


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[Illustration: Illustration of a large side of beer hanging on a wooden door.]




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most butchers locate them: in different parts of the country, they vary slightly; but, as has already been said, the difference is more in name than in appearance. The choicest parts of the carcass are along the line of the backbone. One rather unusual cut, the baron of beef, is not shown: it consists of the double loin or sirloin, and is too large for ordinary purposes, the average weight being about one hundred pounds.

The following figures indicate the position, in the picture, of the different cuts of beef:--

1. Shin, or leg; used for soups and plain stews.

2. Round; used for steaks, pot-roasts, and beef à la mode.

3. Rump; used for steaks, stews, and corned beef.

4. Butt or flank steak; used for steak, pressed beef, and corned beef.

5. Large sirloin steaks; large, juicy steaks, used for broiling and frying.

6. Sirloinroast or porterhouse steaks; used for the choice roast or beefsteaks.

7. Flank; used for corned beef or stews.

8. Navel; used for corned beef.

9. Plate; used for corned beef.

10. Ribs; used for roasting.

11. Chuck ribs; used for roasting and steaks.

12. Shoulder-piece; used for soups, stews, mince, and pot-roasts.

13. Shank, or shin; used chiefly for soups.

14. Neck; used for soups, stews, and hash or mince.

15. Brisket; used for corned beef, spiced beef, and stews.

There is choice to be exercised in regard to steaks and roasts. The hip- or thick-end of the sirloin or porterhouse cut makes the finest beefsteaks, the two hip-bone or tenderloin steaks being the best large beefsteaks in the entire carcass. The middle porterhouse steaks are smaller, and have a good proportion of tenderloin or filet; the thin end of the


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sirloin gives small porterhouse steaks of excellent flavor. Beyond the hip-bone sirloin steak, come the flat- and round-bone sirloin steaks, which are large, juicy, and well-flavored; then the ordinary large sirloin steaks reach to the rump-piece. The tenderloin or filet of beef runs under the sirloin, beginning at the round-bone sirloin steak, and running up to about the third small porterhouse.-- from fifteen to twenty inches,--and weighing five pounds or more. Rump and round steaks cut from fine beef are composed of firm, juicy, well-flavored flesh, and in point of nutriment compare favorably with any portion. The roasting-ribs are cut from the fore-quarter; they number in all thirteen, and are usually cut in twos or threes, according to the size or weight required. The first two or three are called the first-cut ribs; then come the second- or middle-cut, reaching as far as the fifth or sixth rib; the third-cut ribs reach up to the chuck- or shoulder-ribs, which begin at the ninth rib: all these cuts are juicy, tender, and highly flavored. The four chuck-ribs proper run up to the neck. The piece of shoulder-blade running through the chuck-ribs can be cut out by the butcher, and replaced with a piece of fat. The chuck-ribs are divided according to the requirements of the purchaser: their flavor is sweet; and, as they are marbled with fat in good beef, they rank next the sirloin, either as roasts or steaks. The chuck nearest the neck is inferior in quality to the other end near the ribs proper.

> VEAL.

The best veal is from a milk fed calf about six weeks old. Veal less than a month old is watery, soft, and insipid. Good veal shows a fine-grained, juicy flesh, of a delicate pinkish color, with firm white fat. When the food of calves is changed to grass, hay, or meal, the character of the flesh changes: it is harder, less juicy, and darker in color, and the fat grows yellowish. When the flesh of veal is very white,


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it may have been blanched for the purpose of changing the appearance of poor veal to that of good quality. The flesh of the second quality of veal is red, contrasted with the pinkish-white prime flesh, and the fat is coarser-grained and less abundant. The poorest kind of veal has decidedly red flesh, and very little kidney-fat. When the kidney-fat of any quality of veal begins to grow soft and clammy, the meat is on the verge of spoiling. Bob-veal is the flesh of calves killed when they are less than three weeks old: the flesh is soft, semi-gelatinous, and sticky, and the fat is scant and flabby. It is utterly unfit for food: being the first flesh of the young creature, unchanged by the healthful action of sun and air, it is devoid of those elements which make good flesh a wholesome food. The influence of sun and air upon the blood of animals is well understood by stock-raisers, who have demonstrated that far better meat is produced by animals fattened in the open air than by those that are housed for any considerable length of time. The annexed cut represents a carcass of veal prepared for market, the lines being those generally followed in cutting it up.

I. Leg, including part of the flank; used for cutlets and roasts.

2. Loin; used for roasts and chops.

3. Flank: this part is often nearly all cut with the leg, but if separated it makes a good roll for baking or stewing.

4. The ribs lying under the shoulder; used for roasts, chops, and stews.

5. Breast; used for stews, pot-pie, and baking.

6. Shoulder; used for roasts and baked dishes.

7. Neck; used for broth and stews.

8. Feet; used for jelly.

The hind-quarter of veal is generally considered the finest, but the rib-chops are exceedingly good. In a small carcass


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[Illustration: Illustration of a large side of veal hanging over a chopping block with a large butcher knife next to it.]




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of veal, the hind-quarter would be divided simply into loin and leg, and the fore-quarter into shoulder, breast, and neck.

> LAMB.

Spring lamb is divided simply into fore- and hind-quarters by a middle cut, which leaves several of the ribs attached to the hind-quarter. The latter commands the highest price, because it presents the greatest available quantity of meat; but its flavor is not superior to that of the shoulder. If a lamb is very large, the neck may be separated from the fore-quarter to use for stews. Very delicate dishes are made from lamb's feet.

Spring lamb proper is from six weeks to three months old. House-lamb is lamb fed under cover during the winter months. Lamb is sold from spring until late winter, not being called mutton until after it is a year old. The weight of small spring lamb is from twenty to twenty-five pounds; and, as the season progresses, the size increases to about a hundred pounds. As the lamb grows larger, chops are cut from both fore- and hind-quarters; the former being called rib-chops, and the latter loin-chops or cutlets, as they are taken from the loin or leg. Sometimes small sheep are dressed like lamb; but the difference is shown by the darker red of the flesh, the comparitive scantiness of the fat, and the white color of the bones as opposed to the reddish bones of lamb. The back- and kidney-fat of lamb is hard, white, and abundant; and the flesh has a delicate rosy tint. The flesh of the second quality is darker and less firm than that of prime lamb; the grain is coarser, and the fat less white and abundant. Poor lamb has scant yellowish fat, and lean flabby meat without any interspersed lines of fat; and the flesh is soft andwatery. When the kidney-fat of lamb begins to grow soft and sticky, the meatis on the point of spoiling; a bad odor indicates that it is already


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[Illustration: An illustration of a large side of lamb hanging on a hook over a chopping block.]




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tainted, and is unfit for use. It is not ever a safe experiment to roast or bake meat upon the verge of spoiling, because the gradual heating of the interior will generally complete its decomposition.

> MUTTON.

Mutton is prime from creatures about three years old, fed out of doors, and especially upon hillsides. The fat of prime mutton is abundant, white, and hard; the flesh is firm and juicy, and of a clear-red color; and the bones are white. The flesh of second quality is darker and closer-grained, the fat is scanty and yellowish, and the flavor is rank. Poor mutton has pale, flabby flesh, scant thin fat laid close against the flesh but not interlined with it, and the flesh parts easily from the bones. Diseased mutton has decidedly yellowish fat, and soft, flabby flesh. Small mutton is cut like large lamb; large mutton is cut by the lines indicated in the annexed cut.

I. Leg; used for roasts: in large mutton, part of the leg is cut with the saddle.

2. Loin; used for roasts and chops: the dotted line at 2 shows the cut for a saddle of mutton.

3. Flank; cut separate in very large mutton, but in medium-sized carcasses included in the loin cut or chops.

4. Rack, or rib-chops; used for rib- or French-chops.

5. Breast; used for roasts, stews, and baked dishes.

6. Shoulder; used for roasts and baked dishes.

7. Neck; used for cutlets and stews.

The saddle of mutton is the double loin, cut without splitting it down the back: a detail of illustration is given elsewhere. French chops are rib-chops with the end of the bone trimmed off, and the flesh and fat cut away from the bone at the thin or flank end, leaving the round piece of flesh near the back-bone attached to the rib.

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[Illustration: An Illustration of a large side of mutton hanging over a wooden door.]

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> PORK.

The best pork for general table-use is from carcasses weighing from fifty to about a hundred and twenty-five pounds. The color of the flesh is a fresh pink; and the fat is hard and white, not less than an inch thick upon the back, and very abundant about the intestines. The skin of young pork is whitish and semi-transparent. The second quality of pork has rather hard red flesh and yellowish fat; the poor sort has dark, coarse-grained flesh, soft fat, and a generally inferior appearance. Measly pork, which is unfit for use, has little kernels in the fat; the kernels or yellowish lumps sometimes show in the lean, and the entire flesh has a dull look. The tenderloins of pork correspond with those of beef in place: they are of sweet and tender flesh, and during the winter season can generally be bought. When the back-fat of pork is very thick, some of it is removed from the parts which are to be used for roasts and chops; when the skin is dressed on roasts, it is scored in lines about half an inch apart.

The accompanying cut shows a carcass of pork as divided for general cooking-purposes. When the entire creature is designed for salting, the cuts differ a little, but not materially.

I. Leg; used for roasts, ham, and corned pork.

2. Flank; used for pickling or salting.

3. Loin; used for roasts, chops, and baked dishes.

4. Brisket; used for pickling and salting, and bacon.

5. Ribs; used for roasts, chops, and baked dishes.

6. Shoulder; used for roasts, ham, and corned pork.

7. Neck; used for roasts and neck cutlets.

8. Top of head; used for pickling and salting.

9. Cheek; used for pickling and salting.

10. Hock; used for pickling and salting.

11. Feet; used for souse and >jelly.

12. Tail-piece; used fresh as a choice roast.

[Editorial note: number 12. origionally appeared on page 34.]

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[Illustration: An illustration of a side of pork hanging over a wooden door.]

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That part of a carcass of pork used for bacon is the flank and brisket, including the belly and the thin part of the ribs: it is first thoroughly salted, and then dried or smoked. The flitch of bacon is the entire side between the shoulder and the leg. Brawn is the entire length of a side, pickled, after it has been boned and rolled, and then boiled.

> POULTRY.

There is no season when it is impossible to obtain good poultry of some kind; but in warm, damp weather it is advisable to select that which has not been long killed, or preserved on ice, as both are likely to spoil quickly. In selecting fowls, see that the skin is clean, soft, and not badly torn, that the flesh looks plump and light-colored or whitish under the skin, and that some fat is apparent. Young fowls or chickens have large feet and long necks in proportion to their size, and the lower end of the breast-bone is so soft as to bend easily in response to slight side pressure: the cartilage does not harden into bone while the chicken is young enough to be absolutely tender. Of course there are tender large fowls and capons, bred especially for the table, which are well grown, and abound in delicious flesh. If the head and feet are upon dressed poultry, they will generally indicate its condition. The eyes will be full and bright, and the feet soft and pliable, when the poultry is in good condition: if it is poor and stale, the feet will be dry and stiff, the eyes sunken and dull, and the flesh dark-colored and changing to a greenish hue about the back and vent, as the poultry nears the point of spoiling. There are so many devices for restoring stale poultry which has not actually reached the stage of putrefaction, that the only absolute safety lies in buying from honest dealers. The head of a capon, which is always left on the bird, is smaller in proportion


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to the body than that of ordinary poultry; the comb is more withered and pale; the neck-feathers are longer; and the body is shorter, fatter, and more plump. The flesh of capons is very tender and juicy: the weight is usually from eight to twelve pounds. Capon turkeys are unusual but delicious. The best spring chickens are those which have a full breast and are plump and short: those which have long legs and large bones are less satisfactory. Bantam fowls, which are sometimes marketed, are short and plump, about the size of a partridge; and their flesh is excellent when they are young and fat.

Turkeys are in fine condition when the flesh looks white and plump, and they have full breasts and smooth legs: old turkeys have rather thick skins covered with long hairs, and the flesh is purplish under the skin. Hen turkeys are smaller and plumper than male birds, and of less intense flavor: turkey poults, or young turkeys, are very tender and delicate, but not full-flavored. The finest turkeys that are marketed are the mutton-fed birds: they are fat, juicy, and well-flavored.

Young ducks, or ducklings, and goslings are among the most delicious poultry: they are very fat, and the flesh is highly flavored. Good ducks and geese are plump, with abundance of semi-transparent, soft fat: they have a pliable breast-bone, flesh-colored and brittle beaks, and windpipes that break when pressed between the thumb and finger. As the birds grow old, the color of the feet and beaks changes from yellow to red. Goslings are sometimes called green geese.

Pigeons and squabs, either domestic or wild, are generally in market. Pigeons are good when the breasts are large and plump in proportion to the size of the bird. The flesh of old birds is very dark-colored, that of good ones is dark red, and of squabs so light as to be almost pink. The


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squabs, also, are very short and fat, and have full round bodies and soft legs and feet.

> GAME-BIRDS.

Game-birds are abundant in all parts of America, in their season, and can usually be bought in good condition from reliable dealers. The breasts should always be full and tender, and the skin upon the rump and about the vent clear and freshly colored: if there is any appearance of discoloration, the birds are stale. A few feathers plucked from these parts will disclose the color of the skin, and a touch will indicate the condition of the breast. Despite the fact that epicures like game hung until it is upon the verge of putrefaction, it is neither safe nor wholesome food in that condition: when it is reasonably fresh, it cannot be excelled. Among the larger game-birds, the canvas-back duck is the best. It is as abundant in the great North-western lakes as upon the Eastern seaboard, and the canvas-backs of the Pacific Coast are delicious. This duck may be distinguished from other species by the appearance of the feathers on the back of the male bird, which resemble a piece of rough canvas. The bills of canvas-backs run nearly on a line with the top of the head, and are about three inches long: they are black, as contrasted with the bills of other wild duck, which generally show some trace of color. When the bills of other ducks are black, they are usually of a different shape to those of canvas-backs.

> GAME.

Large game is abundant and varied, and is good until it begins to taint. Prime game is clean and fat, and free from any unpleasant or musty odor. The most abundant is venison; but buffalo, bear, elk, antelope, wild sheep and goat, and rabbits, hares, squirrels, raccoons, otters, beavers, badgers, and musquash or muskrat, are frequently marketed,-


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the latter especially in Southern cities, where the old colored cooks convert them into excellent dishes.

With all game, the judgment of a reliable dealer is the best guide for the buyer; but a few hints may be given as to the possibility of keeping game in order to make the flesh tender. All wild meat will keep good longer than domestic meat, because of its firm texture. In average temperate weather, clear and dry, meat which has not been frozen will keep the following length of time: veal and pork, one day; lamb, two days; beef and mutton, from three to ten days; large poultry and game-birds, from three to six days; small game from two to five days, and large game about a week. In clear winter weather, meat and game frozen in the air will keep until there are signs of a thaw: they should then be put into an ice-house, where they will remain frozen, or thawed out in cold water and speedily used. In warm, muggy weather, and during summer rains, meat exposed to the air spoils quickly; and the conditions of warmth and moisture to which it is exposed are not unlike those which prevail when frozen meat is exposed to the heat of the fire in roasting and baking. Meats should be hung up, and entirely covered with thin cloth or fly-screens, in a cool, dark place, free from dampness: they should not be laid upon dishes or boards, because the blood which flows from them taints more quickly than the flesh itself. It is for the purpose of entirely removing this blood, that butchers scrape their meat-blocks instead of washing them. Meats designed for broiling, roasting, and baking can be hung longer than those which are to be boiled.

> FISH.

In selecting fish, have it as fresh as possible. This condition is indicated by the fulness and brightness of the eyes, and the clean skin and firm flesh: above all, the odor should be sweet and fresh. Fish which is marketed in a


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frozen state should be thawed in cold water, and cooked at once. Sea-fish, and those which run from the sea into bays and rivers, have the finest flavor: fresh-water fish sometimes have a muddy taste, which can be removed to some extent by soaking them in salted cold water for a couple of hours before they are cooked. All fish are best before spawning: after that period, the flesh becomes soft and watery. Good crabs and lobsters are heavy in proportion to their size, and while uncooked their movements are rapid if they are in good condition: if cooked, their odor is sweet as long as they are good. Oysters, clams, scallops, and mussels should be eaten as fresh as possible always. Salted and smoked fish should always have a good odor and clean appearance.

> VEGETABLES AND FRUIT.

All juicy and green vegetables should be very fresh and succulent, and are best just before flowering, as also are the sweet herbs called pot-herbs. Roots and tubers should be full and fresh-colored: if withered or sprouted, they are inferior. The green vegetables should not be bought in larger quantity than can be used while they are still fresh: they will keep best if sprinkled with water, and laid in a cool, dark place. All the roots and tubers are improved by laying them in cold water for an hour before using them. Details of the keeping of vegetables are given elsewhere.

Fruit when fresh should be ripe and sound, as perfect as possible (because this will make less waste), and bought only in quantities which admit of speedy use, unless it is winter-fruit which can be kept without any danger of spoiling. Preserved and dried fruits keep well in cool, dark places, and so may be bought safely in quantities.

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> DAIRY PRODUCTS AND GROCERIES.

Milk, butter, cheese, and eggs are so perishable that it is not well to purchase them in quantities larger than required for a few days' use, unless the family is large and can consume such amounts as are sold at wholesale prices. The detail of keeping them has been given elsewhere.

The corn and wheat products, and cereals in general, may be bought by the large quantity if there is a good dry storeroom where they can be secured from destructive vermin and mouldiness.

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> CHAPTER III.

> METHODS OF COOKING.

WHATEVER the manner chosen for the dressing of food, it can be traced to some one of the comparatively few fundamental methods of cookery. These methods will be given in this chapter in sufficient detail to enable the least-experienced cook to follow them readily. If the fact is once accepted, that in cookery similar results follow definite operations as certainly as they do in any other manual work, there need be no uncertainty or failure. Let any one understand that it requires a fixed degree of heat to make water boil, and it will not be expected to boil at any less heat: it is equally to be supposed, that, if a safe and easy way is shown to accomplish a given result in cooking, it will be generally followed in preference to less clear and reasonable ways of work.

ROASTING.

The most primitive cookery was undoubtedly done at an open fire. And it yet remains for science to find a better method; for this reason, when it is possible, meat should be roasted before an open fire, rather than baked in an oven as most so-called roasts are now cooked. At the old-fashioned open fire upon the hearth, it was easy to roast, because there was in the same spot before the fire the intense heat required for cooking, and the constantly changing current of air necessary to carry away from the meat the fumes of burning


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fat, which must impair its flavor, and the steam set free from its interior, which destroys the crispness of its surface if confined about it as in baking. In the oven, the fat drawn out by intense heat spatters against the hot sides, and burns; while the steam generated by heat from the natural moisture of the meat, if confined to the oven, cannot fail to soften the surface. This point will be reverted to in treating of baking meats.

It is possible to roast meat before many of the modern cook-stoves and ranges, because there is a movable front before the grate containing the fuel. When this is the case, meat can be roasted with aid of the tin case open on one side, called the Dutch- or tin-oven. A clear, hot fire should be made. The meat, properly prepared, should be hung in the oven, and placed directly in front of the grate; the greatest available heat being required to quickly crisp the surface, and thus retain the juices of the meat. The tin ovens are generally provided with a movable hook in the top, upon which the meat is hung, and by means of which it can be turned without changing the position of the oven: some of the ovens are made with an automatic spring, that keeps the meat constantly revolving upon the hook, and so favors a uniformly brown surface.

In the various recipes in this volume, for roast meats, full directions are given for their treatment, so that here it is necessary only to say that they should be cleansed by wiping with a wet cloth, instead of being washed, because water extracts their juices; that no salt should be applied to cut surfaces until they are brown, because that, too, has a tendency to draw out their juices; and that no water should be put into the dripping-pan for basting, because it can never get as hot as the hot fat upon the surface of the meat, and it also generates steam which impairs the crispness so desirable in a roast. Basting should be done with the drippings


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which flow from the meat, or with butter. After the meat is brown, it may be seasoned; and, if a "frothed" surface is desired, flour may be dredged upon it every time it is basted. Directions for making gravy are included in each recipe for the different roasts. Anthracite coal, coke, charcoal, hard-wood embers, and gas afford good heat for roasting, because their heat is intense, and they do not impart any unpleasant odor to the meat.

BAKING.

As is said in the preceding paragraph, baking is not the most desirable way of cooking meat; but the ovens are often available when an open fire cannot be reached. When there are two or more ovens in a stove or range, they should be set apart for the baking for which they are specially adapted. The hottest should be chosen for meats, because equally in baking as in roasting it is desirable that the first exposure of meat should be to the greatest obtainable heat, in order to quickly crisp its surface, and confine its natural juices: besides this, there is the additional fact to be remembered, that meat put into a cool oven will sometimes become tainted before it is cooked; that is, the degree of heat will be high enough to forward rapid decomposition, but not high enough to cook the meat. The oven should be too hot to permit the hand to be held in it even for a moment. It cannot be too hot at first; for, the more quickly the outside of the meat is crisped, the more entirely its juices are retained. The heat can be moderated when it has served this purpose.

To prepare the meat for baking, wipe it with a cloth wet in cold water, but do not wash it, because that tends to draw out the juices; trim off all defective portions; lay it in a baking-pan without salting it, and quickly brown it; it may then be seasoned, and "frothed" by dredging it with flour and basting it with drippings or butter. The bones cut from the joint may be put into the pan with it; and a little beef-


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suet, or salt pork if it is not fat enough to yield drippings, or some scraps of vegetables and sweet herbs, may be used under it. But no water should be put into the pan: the water, even when boiling, is not as hot as the outside of the meat; and, in addition, the steam which rises from it softens the entire surface of the meat, and draws out its juices. It is futile to expect to restore the extracted juices by means of basting; if the meat is not washed or salted, and is quickly browned, it will retain its juices so entirely that a rich gravy will flow from it when it is carved. Directions are given elsewhere for making gravy from the drippings of baked meats.

The reason why separate ovens should be used for meat and pastry is because the particles of fat which fly from the meat while it is baking burn upon the sides of the oven, and impart their odor and flavor to delicate cakes and pastry. Different meats should not be baked in the same pans: the fact that they are often so cooked at hotels and restaurants is one reason why such meats generally lack their distinctive flavor.

The bread and pastry ovens do not require to be so hot as those in which meat is baked, and means must be devised to moderate their heat when it is excessive; opening the doors, or slides in the doors, of the ovens, cools them rapidly. Their temperature should always be ascertained before any thing is put into them to cook. All the flues, and the top and bottom of the ovens, should be kept free from ashes, and the dampers should always be in good working order. When an oven is too hot at the top, cool it by opening the door, and then guard the top of whatever substance is baking by covering it with buttered paper or with an extra pan turned over it. If the oven is apt to burn from the bottom, cover it half an inch deep with clean sand: this will disperse the superfluous heat evenly throughout the oven.


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If an oven will not heat, have it attended to by the stove-maker or tin-smith: if an oven is without ventilation, have the close door changed for one supplied with ventilators. The latest improvement in stove-ovens is the attachment of a wire-gauze door in place of the iron door: the idea is an admirable one.

BROILING.

The general principles of roasting apply to broiling. The circulation of free air around the meat carries away from it all the smoke arising from the burning fat, at the same time with the products of combustion from the fire. The fire must be hot enough to quickly sear the cut surface of the meat, and only when this is done will the juices be retained.

Meat for broiling should be cut from an inch to an inch and a half thick; the surface should be scraped with the back of a knife, to remove sawdust and bonedust, and then wiped with a wet cloth, but not washed. It is useless to attempt to broil well with a poor fire; for the meat will be smoked, and will lose part of its valuable juices. When the fire is clear, put the meat over it, as close as possible to it, and crisp first one side and then the other; if the fire is very hot, it will not be necessary to turn the meat repeatedly while it is being browned. After both sides of the meat are brown, hold it far enough away from the fire to prevent burning, and finish cooking it to the desired point; when the fire is hot, and the meat cut as directed above, it will cook medium-rare in from fifteen to twenty minutes. A good way to hold the meat away from the fire, after the first browning, is to place two bricks on either side of the opening in the stove which contains the fire, and lay the ends of the gridiron upon them; the distance can be regulated by changing the position of the bricks.

After the meat is browned on both sides, it can be tested without cutting into it, or removing it from the gridiron, by


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quickly pressing the tip of one finger upon it: if, when the pressure is removed, the meat springs up again, the fibre is still elastic because it is uncooked, and if the meat were cut it would be found to be very rare; when, after the pressure, the surface of the meat slowly returns to its original level, the meat is medium-rare; when the meat retains the mark of the pressure, it is well done. While the meat is being broiled, heat a dish to receive it: after it is laid upon the hot dish, season it with salt, pepper, and butter, on both sides, and serve it at once. Broiled meat always deteriorates by being left standing near the fire any length of time after it is cooked.

FRYING.

Frying proper is performed by entirely immersing any edible substance in enough smoking-hot fat to cover it; but a form of half-frying is sometimes used for steaks and chops when broiling is out of the question. When this kind of frying is properly done, the meat will be juicy, well-flavored, and will closely resemble broiled meat. It is necessary to make the frying-pan very hot over the fire, before putting the meat into it. Any kind of frying-pan can be used without danger of burning the meat and gravy, except a marbleized-iron pan, which is unsuitable for use over intense heat. When the frying-pan is so hot that it will siss when the meat touches it, put in the meat, and brown it quickly, first upon one side and then upon the other, as in broiling; then finish cooking it to the desired degree, and season and serve it: in fact, the process is similar to broiling, save that the hot frying-pan replaces the fire. If gravy is desired for fried meat, stir a tablespoonful of dry flour with the little drippings in the frying-pan, and when the flour is brown stir into it a pint of boiling water; season the gravy with salt and pepper, stir it until it boils, and then serve it in a gravy-bowl. No butter or fat need be put into the pan unless the meat is absolutely


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lean: in that case, use only enough to prevent the burning of the meat.

The frying of fish-balls, croquettes, doughnuts, and other foods should be done in a deep frying-pan, or round-bottomed kettle called a Scotch bowl, half full of drippings, lard, butter, or olive-oil, at choice: olive-oil is the best medium for frying fish of any kind. The fat must be placed over the fire until a thin smoke begins to rise from its surface: at that temperature, its heat will crisp the outside of any food put into it, and so prevent that soaking of fat which renders some fried foods so unwholesome. As soon as the fried article is browned to the desired degree, and floats upon the surface of the hot fat, remove it with a skimmer, lay it upon brown paper for a moment to free it from grease, and then serve it at once.

BOILING.

Boiling consists of immersing any article in actually boiling water, and maintaining the temperature of the water at the boiling-point until the article is cooked. Stewing and simmering are forms of boiling, as will be explained hereafter. Rapid and continued boiling slightly hardens the surface of vegetables, thus preserving their form, color, and flavor, and is advantageous: details on this point are given in the recipes for cooking vegetables. On the other hand, the hard boiling of meat makes it tough: stewing and simmering are the best ways of cooking meat after it has once been brought to the boiling-point. Salted boiling water is slightly hotter than fresh boiling water: chemists make use of salt to heighten the temperature of water in the bain-marie, or salt-water bath, in which vessels are placed containing boiling substances which require an unvarying high heat. To boil fresh meat, plunge it into salted boiling water, and, when the water boils again, place the vessel containing it where the boiling will be maintained at a gentle degree until the article


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is cooked. If salt or smoked meats are to be boiled, place them over the fire in cold water, and let the water gradually approach the boiling-point; maintain a gentle boiling until the meat is tender: if the meat is very salt, it may be necessary to pour away the first water, and replace it with more that is actually boiling. When salted meats are to be used cold, they are best if allowed to cool in the water in which they are boiled. The details of boiling the different meats, fish, poultry, vegetables, and puddings, are given in the proper recipes.

Stewing and simmering consist of first bringing any article of food to the boiling-point in water or sauce, and then continuing the cooking at a very gentle rate of boiling until the food is done. These kinds of boiling make food very tender and digestible, and prepare its properties for immediate and complete nutrition: they are invaluable in treating tough meats.

STEAMING.

Steaming is an excellent way of cooking, calculated to prepare food for imparting all its nutriment to the system. It preserves all the flavor of food, and prevents its absorption of water when this is undesirable. Steaming can be done in any kind of steamer, or in a closed kettle or mould immersed in boiling water.

BRAISING.

Braising consists of cooking any article of food in water or sauce, in a braising-pan. This pan may be either round or oval, with a flat bottom, and a depressed cover made to hold hot coals or ashes. Braising is more practised in Europe than in America, because there fuel is scarce and expensive: it was in vogue in this country when cooking was done over open fires, the vessel used being called a bake-kettle or old-fashioned Dutch-oven. The same effect may be produced by putting a covered saucepan containing food


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into a moderately hot oven and so cooking the food to the required degree.

BLANCHING.

Any articles of food, except sweetbreads and almonds, are said to be blanched when they have been immersed in boiling water for a given length of time: sweetbreads must be previously soaked in cold salted water, and almonds subsequently rubbed with a cloth to remove their skins. Details of these two operations are given in the appropriate recipes.

GLAZING AND GILDING.

Glazing is coating the outside of cooked meat and poultry with melted meat-glaze or concentrated broth, the glazed surface being dried by heat after the glaze is applied with a brush. Roasted and baked meats are frequently glazed.

Gilding is covering any surface of food with the beaten yolk of a raw egg, and subsequently drying or browning it in the oven. Fancy pastry is generally gilded.

LARDING AND DAUBING.

Larding is the insertion of small, even-size strips of fat salt pork, tongue, truffles, or any chosen substance, upon the surface of meat, poultry, fish, or game, by means of a little split cylinder of steel called a larding-needle. The lardoons are inserted in the open end of the needle, which is then passed under about half an inch of the surface of the substance to be larded: when the needle is withdrawn, the lardoon remains, both ends projecting slightly. The lardoons are inserted in diagonal lines, the ends of the second line coming between the ends of the first, and so alternating until all the lardoons are used; or they are placed to resemble the stitch in needlework called herring-bone. Details of illustration accompany some of the larded entrÉes given farther on in this volume.

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Daube is a French term referring to the insertion of a large lardoon with the grain of the meat and through its entire substance, the ends of the lardoon projecting about an inch. In this country, butchers frequently daube beef for the dish called beef à la mode, and call the operation larding.

BARDING.

Barding is fastening over the breast of a bird of any kind a large thin slice of fat salt pork, which in cooking serves the purpose of basting. Poultry and game are barded.

BONING.

The operation of boning consists of the entire removal of all the bones from uncooked meat, and the insertion in their place of some kind of force-meat. Details for boning various joints of meat are given under the appropriate recipes. Boned poultry and birds of all kinds are prepared according to the following directions. The removal of bones from cooked birds is not to be called boning: those cooks who so prepare chicken, and call it "boned chicken," simply create a confusion of terms. One reason why there is so much uncertainty about American cookery is because many housekeepers modify a standard dish according to their own ideas, and then retain the original name. If they have the ability to improve upon an accepted method, they ought to name their dish, so as to give it individuality, as justly as inventors who improve upon a patent announce the changes by a new name.

To bone a turkey, or any bird, lay it on a table with the breast down, after it has been carefully plucked, singed, and wiped with a wet towel; cut off the head, the legs above the middle joint, and the wings within two inches of the body; with a small, sharp knife, make a smooth cut through the skin and flesh, down the line of the backbone, from the


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neck to the rump; then begin at the neck to cut off the flesh and skin together from the carcass; work with the point of the knife, holding it flat against the bone, and cutting all the flesh off attached to the skin; first cut from the neck to the joint where the wing is connected with the body, then unjoint that, and leave the bone of the wing in the flesh for the present, and continue to cut down the back and sides until the thigh-joint is reached; unjoint that, leaving the bone in the leg, and cut toward the breast-bone, being careful not to cut through the skin where it is stretched tight over the breast. When the flesh of one side of the bird is loosened from the carcass in this way, turn it over, and take off the other side. Great care must be taken not to cut through the carcass into the intestines, which may remain enclosed in it until it is entirely freed from the flesh and skin. The most difficult part of the operation is cutting off the breast without breaking or tearing the skin: if this accident happens, the aperture must be sewed up before the bird is stuffed. When the flesh is free from the carcass, lay it, skin down, on the table, and distribute the flesh equally all over the skin, cutting the thickest portions, and laying them open like the leaves of a book, so as to cover the skin; cut out the wing and thigh bones, and turn the flesh and skin inside like the fingers of a glove reversed. Remove the entrails from the carcass, saving the liver; break apart the bones, put them in a large kettle with four quarts of cold water and a tablespoonful of salt, and let the water heat. Remove all scum as it rises, and when the broth is free from it put in a medium-size carrot and a white turnip peeled and used uncut; a white onion, peeled without breaking the layers and stuck with a dozen cloves. Hold a small bunch of parsley in the palm of the left hand; lay on it a small stalk of celery, a bay-leaf, a sprig of any sweet herb except sage, a blade of mace, and a dozen peppercorns


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or a small red-pepper pod; fold the parsley so as to enclose all the other seasonings, and tie it in a compact little bundle; this is called a bouquet, or fagot of herbs, in French cookery-books, and serves to give an indescribable and delicious flavor to the dishes in which it is cooked; add it to the broth, and then put on the turkey to boil, after stuffing it as directed in the recipe for forcemeat for boned turkey.

The four recipes for boning a turkey, for preparing the forcemeat for stuffing it, and for making caramel and aspic jelly, comprise the entire operation of boning, cooking, and garnishing boned turkey. These directions are taken from the author's "Baltimore Recipes," a set which includes the dishes taught during one of her lecture-courses in that city.

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> CHAPTER IV.

> CARVING.

IF a little reasoning were applied to carving, it would seem far less difficult than it is supposed to be. A little attention to the location in a bird, fish, or joint of meat, of the bones and joints, enables any person with a tolerably correct eye and steady hand to strike and separate the joints and sinews of small dishes, and to avoid the unmanageable bones in the larger ones. The cuts in this chapter will serve to illustrate the garnishing of dishes as well as carving.

WHOLE FISH.

The carving of fish is simple. The following cut represents a baked fish garnished with parsley. Before cooking, the fins and tail are trimmed close, and several deep cuts made in each side of the fish to permit the gravy or drippings used for basting to penetrate the flesh; the head is left on, because some persons prefer the small flakes of flesh which lie under and back of the eyes. The fish is laid upon a little sauce or a folded napkin, on a hot dish, and garnished with a little parsley. To carve either a baked or a boiled fish, run the fish-knife by the side of the back fin, from the figure I to 2; next, cut from the back fin down to the middle of the under part of the fish, following the dotted lines; then, by slipping the fish-knife under the cut portions, they can be easily lifted off and served. After one side has been


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served, the fish can be laid over upon the dish, and the other side served in the same way; this gives a portion of both


[Illustration: An Illustration of a baked fish garnished with parsley.]

the thick flesh of the back and the thin gelatinous fat part so esteemed by epicures.

HEAD AND SHOULDERS OF FISH.

The engraving here given shows the head and shoulders of a large fish garnished with turned vegetables and parsley. The platter containing the fish is placed over a hot-water dish. To carve such a cut of fish, cut from the direction of the


[Illustration: Illustration of the head and shoulders portion of a fish laying on a plate with grapes.]

figure I towards 2, following the dotted line; then cut from the top of the back down to the under part, in the direction of the dotted lines: this will enable the carver to serve either the thick portion from the back of the neck, or the


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under part which is rich and gelatinous. This is a favorite way of serving boiled salmon, or cod's head and shoulders.

FISH LARDED AND BAKED.

This cut gives a very good idea of a fish larded and baked, and then garnished with mushrooms, turned vegetables, and parsley. The operation of larding is described elsewhere. To serve the fish, cut across the lower edge of the larded portion, in the direction from I to 2, and then cut from the centre of the back down the larded side, following the


[Illustration: An Illustration of a fish laying on a plate larded and baked.]

dotted lines. Serve the larded portion, and some of the vegetable garnish and the sauce; usually a bowl of sauce accompanies this dish to the table.

HALF LARGE BOILED FISH.

This picture represents half a large fish, such as fluke, turbot, or chicken halibut, boiled, and garnished with parsley. To serve it, cut from the outer edge towards the middle, and lift the slices off with the fish-knife. The dotted lines indicate the direction which the knife should take. Half a medium-size turbot will serve about ten people.

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[Illustration: An Illustration of a half large boiled fish on a platter.]

WHOLE TURBOT GARNISHED.

When a large turbot, chicken halibut, or fluke is served entire, it is made an important part of the course, and much care is bestowed upon the garnishing of the dish. The engraving represents a turbot garnished with lobster, a craw-fish, and parsley. The fish is boiled in a special kettle, to prevent breaking. While it is being boiled, a large lobster is cooked, and the meat removed from the shell without


[Illustration: Illustration of a whoe turbot on a plate garnished.]

breaking it apart; this can easily be done by cutting away a portion of the under part of the shell with a can-opener, and removing the flesh as entire as possible: the available


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part of the flesh is then cut in large slices, to be used as shown in the picture between the crawfish and the lobster-shell. The slices are kept in place by being put upon a long flexible skewer; and the crawfish and lobster are held upon the fish by a long ornamental skewer called a hatelet, or atelet. The smaller pieces of lobster, and the fat and coral, are made into lobster sauce, to serve with the boiled fish. To carve the turbot, follow the dotted lines, first cutting from I towards 2, and then along the dotted lines. The under gelatinous part and the thick portion of the fins are most esteemed by epicures; from the back, the best slices are from the middle of the dark side. In preparing the fish for cooking, leave on the fins; cleanse it carefully in plenty of cold water, rubbing salt plentifully over it, and then dry it with a soft cloth; cut a lemon, dip the cut side in salt, and rub it over the white side of the fish before boiling it.

Other directions for carving fish will be given with the recipes for cooking the different dishes.

POULTRY.

After some attention has been paid to the location of the joints, care should be taken, in carving poultry, to fix it firmly with the fork to prevent slipping in the dish, and then to make clean cuts from the point where the knife is inserted. To hack the flesh, is to destroy much of the satisfaction of the eater; besides, well-carved poultry serves so many more at table than that which is hacked and torn. It is quite possible to take from a chicken which weighs about four pounds cooked, at least fourteen good pieces, averaging in size about three inches square. Of course it would not be feasible to illustrate the carving which accomplishes such a result, without many designs showing the successive stages in carving; but some description is included in that of the following cut of a fowl outlined for carving.

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LARDED FOWL.

The strings used to keep the fowl in shape while cooking will of course be removed by the cook before it is served. To carve it, first insert the fork firmly in the breast-bone, at the point marked by the figure I; instead of cutting off the entire leg, first cut off the drumsticks at 2, and then the second joints, thus avoiding one of the most uncomfortable parts of carving poultry; with a very sharp, thin-bladed carving-


[Illustration: Illustration of a larded fowl.]

knife, the entire fowl can be carved without removing the fork from the breast-bone. After the drumsticks and second joints are taken off, cut at the dotted line marked 3, in towards the body, removing the wings; next insert the point of the knife between the neck-bone where it joins the back-bone and the wing-side-bone,-- a small flat bone which unites with the collar of the breast-bone at the dotted line marked 4, about midway of the merry-thought or wish-bone,--and cut back towards the wing-joint, and thence downwards parallel with the upper part of the back-bone. With the wing-side-bone remove a portion of the white meat of the upper part of the breast. After the legs, wings, and wing-side-bones are removed, and the merry-thought taken off if


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it is desired separate, the point of the carving-knife can be inserted where the ribs join the sides of the breast-bone, where the dotted line marked 5 joins the dotted line 4; by turning the sharp edge of the knife outwards, the point being towards the thigh, and cutting from the inside out through the ribs where they join the breast-bone to the point at the lower end of the breast-bone marked 6, on both sides of the bird, the breast and entire back of the fowl can be separated. As the carving-fork still remains in the breast-bone, the breast can be cut in as many pieces as are desired before it is withdrawn. Finally, the back-bone can be broken where it joins the lower part of the ribs, at figure 7, and the two thigh-side-bones and the rump cut apart. A little study of this diagram and description, and practice with a reasonably tender fowl, will soon enable the carver to proceed with ease and precision.

TO CARVE ROAST TURKEY.

The directions for carving a fowl will apply to a turkey unless it is a very large one, and then probably only the


[Illustration: Illustration of a Roast turkey with the breast carved on a large platter.]

breast and second joints of the legs will be required; in this case, cut off the drumsticks and second joints as directed in


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the carving of fowls, and then cut the breast as follows: first cut through the middle of the breast, following the line from I to 2; and then follow the dotted line from I, across the lower part of the breast, around the thigh and wing and across the breast where it joins the neck; after that, cut out slices of the breast in the direction of the dotted lines, cutting quite down to the bone, and then running the knife-blade close to the breast-bone to disengage the flesh from it. Sometimes the slices are taken off the breast in diagonal cuts, but that method does not equally divide the two filets of the breast.

TURKEY PARTLY BONED.

When all the bones have been removed from a fowl or turkey before roasting, except the wing and drumstick bones,


[Illustration: Illustration of a turkey that is partly boned sitting on a platter.]

slices may be cut as shown in the annexed cut. A recipe is given elsewhere for the preparation of this dish, which is garnished with aspic jelly and parsley. The first cut is made down the middle of the breast, from I to 2; and then the curved slices are made, cutting down into the forcemeat, or stuffing, of the bird.

HOW TO CARVE DUCKS.

When ducks are served, it is advisable to have a pair, because only the breast is to be relied upon for tender flesh.


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The dotted lines show the direction which the knife should take in carving, the cuts being made quite down to the breast-bone. The remainder of the carcass will make an


[Illustration: Illustration of two ducks ona platter that are carved.]

excellent ragoût; or a purÉe of game, if the ducks are wild. The garnish of ducks may be fried parsley or fresh water-cress.

HOW TO CARVE ROAST GOOSE.

A goose is so large that it is seldom necessary to carve the entire bird. The breast can be cut in the direction of the dotted lines from I to 2, and then from a semi-circular


[Illustration: Illustration of a Roast Goose on a platter that is carved.]

cut at the dotted line 3 some of the forcemeat, or stuffing of the bird can be taken. The garnish of the goose here shown is small tart apples fried whole, and small sausages broiled. If the entire bird is to be used, the drumsticks,


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thighs, and wings can be taken off at the dotted lines, and as much more cut as is desired, according to the directions given for carving fowls.

GAME-BIRDS.

The wild ducks are carved as shown in the engraving of roast ducks if they are large; if small, half the entire breast is cut out in one piece, and served to one guest. The remainder


[Illustration: Illustration of a Roast Woodcock that is garnished.]

of the birds is used for ragoûts and purÉes. The smaller birds, such as wild pigeons and squabs, quail, woodcocks, and the various snipe, are served entire. Sometimes, if woodcock are very large, one cut may be made down the middle of the bird from I to 2. The toast under woodcock is always served with the bird. The garnish of the dish


[Illustration: Illustration of a Roast Pheasant on a platter.]

here shown is parsley and blood-oranges: there is no more acceptable garnish for birds than sub-acid oranges.

The large game-birds, such as pheasants, partridge,


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grouse, moor-fowl, and prairie-chicken, are carved from the breast when they are large, and quartered or halved when of medium size. The cut of a pheasant will give a good idea of the carving of the different birds: the pheasant represented here is larded; the head, neck, and tail are added after the bird is cooked; and it is served on toast, garnished with lemon and parsley.

MEATS.

The carving of joints of meat is much simpler than poultry, once the position of the bones is understood. It is


[Illustration: Illustration of a leg of mutton on a platter.]

often possible to remove many of the bones of meat before cooking it; and this is desirable on the score of economy, as well as for convenience in carving.

The first picture represents a leg of mutton cut through the choice part. Make the first cuts in the direction of the lines marked I and 2, and then follow the dotted lines: this will give slices of alternate fat and lean. When this does not afford enough for serving, other slices can be taken from the outer side of the leg, cutting around the bone in the same way.

MUTTON BONED AND STUFFED.

Both the leg and shoulder of mutton can be used very advantageously if the bone is removed, and the joint filled


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with a good stuffing before it is cooked. The accompanying cut shows a loin and leg, boned, stuffed, and baked,


[Illustration: Illustration of a leg of mutton boned.]

with a garnish of small balls of turnip boiled. The dotted lines show the direction of the first cuts: the final cut, from I to 2, releases the slices. Or the joint can be served by carving it directly from the large end, entirely down through the meat.

SADDLE OF MUTTON LARDED.

The saddle, or double loin, of mutton, is carved in a line


[Illustration: Illustration of a Saddle of Mutton larded on a platter.]

with the back-bone, from I to 2, the knife running down through the lean quite to the bone. When the saddle is


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very large, these slices may be cut in two parts. The fat is to be cut in the direction of the dotted lines at 3.

ROUND OF BEEF.

The fresh round of beef closely filled with pieces of fat salt pork, or with a rich stuffing inserted with the grain, is carved across the grain, downward from one end, if it is placed on the platter as shown in the annexed cut. When the grain of the meat is presented lying upward from the


[Illustration: Illustration of Beef a la mode on a platter.]

platter, the cuts are then made across the surface. A small slice of fat is generally cut with each slice of lean. The garnish of the beef is of boiled vegetables. The dish is often called beef à la mode, although it should be called à la daube.

SIRLOIN OF BEEF.

The sirloin of beef, which is the portion cut into the beefsteaks called "porterhouse," is carved in the direction of the dotted lines which range between the figures I and 2; the tenderloin, or filet, is carved in the dotted lines from 3 to 4, after the joint has been raised on the fork, with the bone resting on the platter, so as to permit the knife to enter the meat from the bottom. A small piece of fat is served with


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each slice of meat. When the bone has been removed, and the sirloin rolled before it is cooked, it is laid upon the


[Illustration: Illustration of a slab of sirloin beef on a platter.]

platter on one end, and an even slice is taken across the grain of the upper surface.

RIBS OR SIRLOIN OF BEEF BONED.

When beef is boned and rolled tightly before it is cooked, it can be carved to much better advantage than when the


[Illustration: Illustration of Ribs and Sirloin beef boned on a platter.]

bones remain in it. Either the ribs or the sirloin can be treated in this way. A sharp, thin-bladed knife is used to remove the bones; and the meat is then rolled and tied compactly;


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after it is cooked, the string used to secure it is removed, and the meat served with a garnish of vegetables if they are desired. The accompanying picture shows a garnish of white turnips cut to resemble cups, and filled with green peas after both are cooked. The cylindrical pieces of vegetables may be made of carrots or turnips, and the little balls of potatoes. The two ornamental skewers at the ends are called hatelets. The meat is to be carved from the top downward, in the direction of the dotted lines from I to 2, either to the bottom or to the cross-line: in the latter case, the garnish need not be disturbed until the entire roll is carved.

BEEF-TONGUES GARNISHED.

Smoked tongues are most palatable when served with a garnish, which may include truffles as shown in the engraving. The truffles are cut in long, sharp cubes, and inserted


[Illustration: Illustration of beef-tongues garnished on a platter.]

in quenelles, or large oval pieces of poached forcemeat: the smaller quenelles are made of plain forcemeat. A plainer garnish can be made of different vegetables. The upper part of the tongues can be carved in the direction of the dotted lines, between I and 2, or cut entirely through from the tip to the root as preferred. When the tongues are served cold, the vegetables must be suitably chosen for the garnish, and the quenelles highly seasoned and free from grease.

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ROAST HAM.

The choice portion of a ham lies between the lines I and 2 in the accompanying engraving. In carving, the cuts are made from the upper surface, towards the bone in the centre of the ham. After the ham is cooked, the skin is removed


[Illustration: Illustration of a Roast Ham on a platter.]

from the greater part of it, and the end of the bone is trimmed off and ornamented with a paper frill. The engraving represents a hot roast ham garnished with hot string-beans, rissoles or little meat turnovers fried, and boiled vegetables cut with a small pear-shaped scoop. A cold ham would not have the vegetable garnish.

COLD HAM WITH ASPIC JELLY.

The accompanying engraving represents a cold roast or boiled ham garnished with aspic jelly. It can be carved in the same way as the hot ham, or in thin slices from the end, following the dotted lines from I to 2. The oval stand upon which the ham rests is usually made of wood, and covered with white paper, or a thin coating of hard white fat or of aspic jelly, applied with a brush while melted, and allowed to cool before placing the ham.

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[Illustration: Illustration of a cold ham with aspic jelly on a platter.]

HAND OR LEG OF YOUNG PORK.

The hand of pork consists of the foot and leg of a young pig. The engraving shows the hand boned, stuffed, and served with a garnish of boiled sprouts or "greens." The carving can be done according to the dotted lines, or by beginning


[Illustration: Illustration of a Hand of pork on a platter.]

at the upper end, and cutting directly down to the dish: this gives a portion of the meat and the forcemeat, and the garnish can be served at will.

SADDLE OF VENISON.

Venison, when served as a saddle, is carved somewhat like mutton, although the two joints shown in the pictures are trimmed differently before cooking, and the saddle of mutton is larded. The dotted lines from I to 2 show the position of the best portion of the lean: the choice fat lies near the


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kidneys, and is reached by cutting through the thin part at the end of the ribs between the figures 3 and 4. Currant-jelly is usually served with venison, and the vegetable garnish is of turnips, string-beans, and potato-balls: cauliflower


[Illustration: Illustration of a saddle of venison on a platter.]

is a good accompaniment for venison; and currant-sauce, currant-jelly sauce, vinegar and claret sauces, and venison-gravy are sent to the table with it.

LARDED SADDLE OF VENISON.

A saddle of venison designed for larding is more closely trimmed, and cut a little shorter, than the ordinary saddle.


[Illustration: Illustration of a larded saddle of venison]

It can be carved in the same way, from I to 2; or slices may be cut downward in the line from 3 to 4, as loin chops are cut, through both fat and lean. The garnish consists of


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string-beans, small cups of turnips filled with green peas, or stuffed artichoke bottoms, and truffles. All venison should be served very hot.

LARDED SHOULDER OF VENISON.

When the shoulder of venison is larded, it is usually carved through the larded portion in the direction of the dotted lines running between the figures I and 2. It is sometimes boned and stuffed, and then the carving may be downward from 3 towards 4, through the entire joint, especially if many


[Illustration: Illustration of ]

persons are to be served. A plain shoulder of venison is carved like a shoulder of mutton. The garnish of the larded shoulder is stoned olives and turned vegetables.

BARDED HARE.

The accompanying cut represents a hare dressed and placed on a spit for roasting, after being barded, or partly covered with a large slice of fat salt pork. The strings which confine the pork are removed before the hare is served, but the pork remains upon it. When the hare is cooked with forcemeat, or served with a garnish, a portion of either and of the pork used for barding is to be served.


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Barded and larded hares are preferable to those which are cooked plain, because the hare is naturally dry meat: a good


[Illustration: Illustration of a Barded Hare.]

sauce or gravy should always be served with hare. The carving of barded and larded hare is similar.

LARDED HARE.

The dotted lines in the following engraving of a larded hare will serve also to illustrate the carving of a barded hare. The larded hare is garnished with small birds barded and roasted, and with fried parsley. To carve a portion of the hare when there are a few persons to be served, insert the point of a sharp knife where the union of the head and body is indicated by the line marked I, and cut along the side of the back-bone toward the line at the top of the thigh marked 2; then follow the dotted lines marked 3, from the middle


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of the back down to the under part of the hare; run the knife under the meat, close to the back-bone and the ribs, and cut off the pieces; serve a bird with each one, and some of the sauce, and the forcemeat if the hare is stuffed. When the entire hare is to be carved, first take off the shoulders, cutting from 4 to 5, and then insert the knife between the leg and the body; bend the shoulder away from it; the few remaining bits of flesh which hold the shoulder to the body can then be severed; the thighs can then be removed


[Illustration: An Illustration of a Larded Hare on a platter.]

in the same way, cutting from 6 to 7; next the head can be cut off, following the line from I to 8; the entire body can then be split down one side of the back-bone, from I to 6, and both sides of the ribs divided along the lines marked 3. The head is a favorite portion with epicures, the ears and brains being especially prized: it is carved by cutting apart the upper and lower jaws at the line marked 9; the upper part of the head can then be cut open from 10 to 11. A medium-size hare will serve six or eight persons. Forcemeat-balls, pickled gherkins, lemon, and currant-jelly, are the plainer garnishes for roast hare.

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> CHAPTER V.

> THE DINING-ROOM AND ITS FITTINGS.

WE are all so unconsciously affected by surroundings, that a homelike room at once impresses us with an indefinable sense of comfort and welcome. A pretty aspect inspires us with cheer; a gloomy one depresses. Of all rooms in the house, the dining-room should be the cheeriest, because it is there that all the members of the family are most likely to congregate. No matter how widely the interests and occupations of father, mother, and children may separate them at other times of the day, the fact remains that at least one-fifth of their waking hours will probably be spent at the table. The intent business-man may find scant time for the ordinary social pleasures which may attract the other members of his family to the sitting-room, library, or drawing-room; but to the dining- room he must go if he ever lives at home. And for this reason, if for no other, when all the apartments of a house cannot be made equally attractive, preference should be given to this, the one most used in common.

Many dining-rooms that we remember are furnished with dark wood; the walls are gloomy, or covered with dismal pictures of dead game and fish; the windows hung with stuff curtains, and the outlook is upon stone walls or paved courts. The ideal dining-room is bright with sun- or lamp-light; the window-draperies are such as to temper but not exclude air


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and sunshine; the pictures are of fruit or still life with bright colors; the chairs are comfortable, and the temperature a pleasant medium between heat and cold. The most modest establishments admits these possibilities, and from them the plainest repast gains a charm. Even where space is so limited that one room must answer both for the preparation and service of food, neatness and order can be maintained; and a little attention to the principles of ventilation will insure that freshness of the atmosphere which is so essential to the enjoyment of food.

> A VERY SIMPLE DINING-ROOM.

Let us take an instance from the simplest effort at housekeeping; say, that the kitchen and dining-room are one. The floor may be bare; indeed, a wooden floor, clean, or stained to imitate dark wood, with one or more rugs,--which may be of rag-carpeting, drugget, or finer goods,--is preferable to a carpeted floor. For the same reason, wooden or bamboo blinds, or thin curtains of linen or cotton, are better than woollen window-draperies, because all woollen fabrics retain odors persistently. The walls can be clean, if there are no pictures; and if the chairs are of the straightest outline, they can be made comfortable with inexpensive cushions. There is no condition of life so lowly as to preclude the possibility of neatness at the table; if there is no linen, the table itself can be clean; if the supply of dishes is limited, it is far more kindly and gracious for the wife or daughter to rise from the table, and wash the plates and cutlery, than to allow meat and pudding to be eaten with the same appliances. When there is plenty of crockery, the trouble is slight compared with the subsequent comfort, if one of the family rises to bring clean plates and knives to replace the soiled ones; and the dignity of the most charming daughter of the house could suffer no detraction if she were to remove


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the crumbs from the cloth before placing the dessert upon it. A hungry man, pressed for time, perhaps hot and labor-stained, comes home for dinner; if he finds a freshly laid table awaiting him, with a neat little wife who has taken a few moments to tidy herself after cooking, ready to give him a hot and savory dinner, and looking as if she had not taken too much trouble to prepare either the dinner or herself for his coming, the chances are that he will feel an involuntary inclination to freshen himself before beginning his meal: if, on the other hand, he is greeted with the unwelcome sight of a disorderly table, ill-cooked food served in slovenly fashion, and a frowzy wife without a suggestion about her of the trim girl who first attracted his fancy, no one can blame him if he throws himself into his chair unwashed, bolts his food surlily, and hurries away from such a foretaste of purgatory.

Just here a bit of the philosophy of common life fits admirably,--the adaptability of persons to circumstances; the ever-recurring forbearance with the individual idiosyncrasies of different members of the family; consideration for personal traits and peculiarities. Every newly married wife, and some old ones, would do well to heed this little commentary on careless living. No matter how limited the household fittings, they can be kept clean: and, above all things, personal cleanliness is a matter of personal choice. Take the dinner--any family dinner may be served in the plainest way, and accepted by its eaters as a good dinner; but with the addition of a little care in dishing and serving, it may assume the aspect of a holiday feast. One of my Syracuse friends, when considering the merits of rival candidates for the supremacy of her kitchen, had this qualification urged upon her: "Mem, I have lived with Mrs. W. on James Street, and she always has her dishes varnished." Of course the girl intended to say "garnished." Think for a moment of the difference. Our bill of fare may be plain,--roast


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mutton with mashed potatoes, a dish of sliced tomatoes, and cups of custard or blancmange: that is a very simple dinner. By putting around the mutton on the dish a few green leaves of parsley, celery, or watercress, the plain dish is made ornamental; the mashed potatoes can be heaped lightly on a platter, and browned in a hot oven, before serving them; the sliced tomatoes can be arranged in even circles in a pretty dish or salad-bowl, with a few green sprigs of celery, parsley, or cress, in the centre; and the custard or blancmange, after being turned from the cups, can be ornamented by cutting a little hollow in the top of each, with a teaspoon, and filling it with a piece of any brightly colored jelly. With a clean cloth and napkins, and brightly polished cutlery and glass, the plain dinner takes on the aspect of a feast; and all these little embellishments are within the reach of very modest households.

> DECORATIVE ART THE REFLEX OF NATURE.

Whether the family resources are narrow, or admit of some indulgence of taste in the choice of decorations in living-rooms, one rule should be followed: Do not encourage shams: let every thing be genuine. Do not paint wood to imitate bronze, or plaster to look like stone. Follow nature, and good taste will not be offended. Do not substitute the grotesque for the graceful, or make a sacrifice of comfort to carry out an idea. Remember that there is an eternal fitness in things. Comfort and taste can easily be combined. We may trust human nature to suggest the former: the latter is the fruit of unrecognized passing influences. The chance glimpse of a beautiful picture, the warmth of color flashing from some luxuriant country garden or glowing mass of flowers in a florist's window, the waving of sun-lit branches, the shifting panorama of the sky,-all feed our artistic inspirations. From art and nature, culture comes to the fancy


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ardent enough to admit its impressions. And the degree of culture possible to individuals shows itself in the homes they make for themselves. The family living-room may be plain in its appointments; but there is no reason why every one of its uncomfortable angles should not be filled with soft, restful cushions. The children leave traces of their growing-up in it. The faces of the old people who have there lived out their lives look down from its walls. The atmosphere is pregnant with personalities, if we will but feel them; so all these homely places are sacred to sweet and tender memories. We should never seek to change the aspect of our homes when we open them to our friends, if we want them to feel at home with us. We may sweep and freshen, if we will, for cleanliness and order are the first of home virtues; but we need not mask our houses any more than we would ourselves when we play the host. Good cheer and pleasant welcome, such as ought always to rule, are the soul of hospitality.

> SIDEBOARDS AND TABLES.

In fitting the dining-room, its capacities should be studied. Unless there is ample space, no superfluous ornamentation should be attempted: all desirable room should be given to the necessary furniture. A movable extension-table for the centre of the room, and a side-table for carving and another for extra table furniture, will be needed, in addition to a buffet or sideboard. This carving-table can be made with side or corner supports holding shelves, and mounted on rollers so that it can be brought near the dining-table when it is required. The next two cuts are taken from Dubois, and show a movable table and hot-closet combined, with folding door upon one side, which can be opened in order to expose the dishes to the heat of the fire, and doors at the front through which the dishes can be arranged before the fire.

The sideboard may be of any fancied design which affords


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[Illustration: Illustration of the front of a Hot-closet, with doors and a stack of plates on top of it.]




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the convenience of shelves for plate and table ornaments, and drawers and under-closets for linen, cutlery, plate, and fine glass-ware. The drawers used for plate, and the under-closets, should be provided with locks. A massive old-fashioned sideboard of great beauty was arched in the centre of the lower part, to afford space for a carved wine-cooler of the same general design, provided with a shelved compartment for salads and cold dessert-dishes. The kettle-drum tables for afternoon teas are small and portable, with a double shelf fixed under the top, midway of the legs, to hold extra cups and plates. But these tables belong in the parlor or reception-rooms, where refreshments are passed upon trays, and either held by the guests or placed upon some convenient stand. There should be several such tables in a room.

When a looking-glass or mirror is used, either as part of a sideboard or for wall decoration in the dining-room, care should be taken that no rays of sunlight strike it; because their chemical action will destroy the perfect distribution of the amalgam with which the reverse of the glass is coated, and so cause an appearance of granulation or crystallization upon the surface of the mirror.

> DECORATIONS OF CHINA AND PLATE.

When fine china or old pieces of plate are used in decorating the dining-room, they should be disposed above the doors and fireplace, on shelves or brackets. The over-mantel can be made a beautiful part of dining-room decoration; and a railed bracket can be run around the entire room just above the head, after the fashion shown in the drawings given elsewhere of the dining-room in which the table is laid.

In the summer, when the open fire is not needed, the fireplace can be hidden by a curtain, run upon a rod set under the edge of the mantle-shelf; this curtain should not


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[Illustration: Illustration of the back of a hot-closet that has shelves with various baking pans on it.]




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be made of the double-faced canton flannel, or fashion-cloth, because the material is very inflammable; any other fancy woollen fabric will answer the purpose.

> CHAIRS FOR THE DINING-ROOM.

Dining-chairs should be rather lightly constructed, so that they can be moved with ease; they can be made absolutely comfortable with practicable cushions, and small hassocks can be placed under the table for additional comfort.

> WINDOWS AND DRAPERIES.

The arrangement of windows in the dining-room deserves attention. Not only the aspect of the room, but its healthfulness, depends upon the free admission of light and air. The use of any other material than woollen has already been advocated for window-hangings; the coolest for summer are bamboo or Venetian blinds, movable at will upon cords worked from inside the windows. An improvement upon the outside window-blind opening from the middle lifts the two blinds from their hinges, unites them in the centre, and then, by hinges at the top of the casement, lowers or raises them at will; a very simple form of movable cloth awning described by the author in "Harper's Bazar" of Sept. 22, 1883, answers the same purpose; and either contrivance replaces the more expensive regulation window-awning.

The East-Indian devices called punkahs and tatties--thick screens of woven fragrant rushes, hung before doors or windows, and saturated with water--cool the air of the room perceptibly. A woollen blanket, or even a thick sheet, suspended in such openings, and kept wet, will lower the interior temperature from 7° to 10° Fah., even in sultry summer weather. In any case, this fact is to be remembered: of all materials, woollen will the longest retain moisture and odor, and therefore is the least desirable for


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draping dining-room windows or doors, unless they are to be kept wet to cool the air.

When the outlook of dining-room windows is upon blank walls and paved yards, the unsightly prospect may be hidden without excluding light, by using Madras-muslin curtains, or any similar opaque drapery which permits the free passage of light and air. Figured lace, cheese-cloth, sheer nettings with dried fern or autumn leaves gummed upon them, will serve this purpose. Window-glass may be made opaque by patting it gently in every part with a piece of soft putty enclosed in a sheer muslin fabric, and then drying the surface of the glass; of course this will not admit of washing. There are many pretty patented devices of semi-transparent imitations of stained glass, which can be applied to ordinary glass windows when the expense of genuine stained or painted glass cannot be incurred. When there is both money and space at will, there can be no more appropriate or enjoyable window-decoration than that of stained or painted glass. The infinite variety in form and coloring offered in artistic and lovely designs makes an embarrassment of riches in this form of decoration.

> LIGHT IN THE DINING-ROOM.

If it is possible to admit sunshine to the dining-room, it should be done; at least, plenty of light should be secured. In California, where the climate permits open windows, and where the houses are generally detached, the fashion prevails of building bay-windows to catch from all points the sunshine and wandering airs that charm the senses in all seasons. When location permits, the windows of the dining-room should reflect harmonies of light and color. In the country this is possible, as also is the delight of an out-door dining-room upon the piazza or lawn; but in cities the dependence for such accessories must be placed upon neutral-tinted walls


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and draperies, enlivened by freshly colored pictures, the light of open fires, and the soft colors of candle-flame and shaded lamps. If there can be only one open fire in the house, put it in the dining-room. One of the most acceptable effects of light is obtainable from the use of colored tissue paper for lamp- shades. The loveliest remembered one was seen in a delightful Southern home,--a lamp entirely hidden in a mass of pink roses, so artistically concealed that real sunlight seemed shining through a cloud of roses. These flower lamp-shades can be made by any deft fingers. They are quite safe to use until the paper becomes very dry and crisp, nearly charred by the heat of the lamp; then they should be renewed. Candles and lamps give a softer and more acceptable light than gas; and there are now so many devices for making both available, that it has come to be a matter of choice in their use; they are specially effective at the dinner-table.

DINING-ROOM FLOORS.

The fact has been mentioned in connection with window-draperies, that all woollen fabrics attract and retain odors, especially those arising from heated fat; for this reason, as well as upon the score of cleanliness, a movable carpet or rug is better for dining-room use than one nailed to the floor. Even in ordinary grades of carpeting, good colors are now available, and can be so combined that centre and border present an acceptable appearance. The rug can be shaken often, and hung for several hours in the air and sunlight, while the floor of the dining-room is being cleaned. When rugs are used, the margin of floors exposed should always be in good condition. If the wood of the floor is fine-grained, and the planks are neatly fitted together, it may simply be cleaned frequently, dry-scrubbing with sawdust being the best method; or it can be kept oiled or polished. When the wood is inferior, or imperfectly joined, the irregularities


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should be planed off, the nail-holes and cracks filled in with putty, and the floor subsequently painted or stained. Good methods are subjoined for producing all these different effects, together with hints for keeping the floors in good order after they are colored. When there is a smooth, hard floor of natural wood, it can be kept in perfect condition by dusting it daily, either with a soft, flexible brush, or a soft woollen cloth. The cloth may be used in the hand, or fastened to a long wooden handle to obviate the necessity for stooping. Linen and cotton fabrics are apt to leave lint upon the boards. In addition to the daily dusting, a weekly dry-scrubbing with sawdust is preferable to washing with water; even for varnished or painted floors, sawdust scrubbing is better than the use of water, which destroys the gloss of the surface, and gradually impairs its integrity by more or less absorption of moisture, especially in damp or foggy places.

SAWDUST SCRUBBING.

Use clean, dry sawdust; scatter it by the handful upon that part of the floor farthest from the door, covering three or four square feet of the floor; then with a stiff new scrubbing-brush, set with short bristles, scrub the floor with the motion used in scrubbing with water; if any spot is unusually soiled, scrub a little harder over it, using extra sawdust. When the entire floor has been scrubbed, sweep up the sawdust, and burn it, and dust off the floor before putting down the rugs.

> DRY SCRUBBING WITH SAND.

Fine white sea-sand can be used upon unpainted floors, in the same way as the sawdust, but is not so perfect a purifier; the only advantage is that the sand can be washed and dried, and used repeatedly. The same process is to be followed as with the sawdust.

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HOW TO PREPARE FLOORS FOR OILING AND STAINING.

When the surface of the floor is uneven, it must be planed down, or rubbed smooth with coarse sandpaper, any projecting nails being first removed. The nail-holes and small cracks must be filled with putty: the large cracks may be filled in with strips of wood. When the floor is quite even, it should be washed clean, and allowed to dry thoroughly; then dust it, and finish it by any chosen process. The vehicle chosen for finishing the floor should be mixed in a rather shallow open basin or bucket admitting the free use of the brushes or rags used in applying the stain or polish. There should be two rags or brushes, one for applying the coloring, and the other for rubbing it well into the crevices of the wood: a small rag or brush is required for the corners and along the wainscoting. Begin to work in the corner farthest from the door. Do not have any open doors or windows if there is any dust flying. Brush or rub with the grain of the wood; make irregular stops, not straight defined lines across the floor; when the wood of the floor is well-grained, have the color mixed thin enough for the grain to show through it, and use strength to rub the color well into the grain of the wood. Soft woods will absorb more stain than hard ones; but a fair proportion is a quart of stain to sixteen square yards of flooring, and half a pint of varnish to protect the stain. After applying one mixture, the brushes must be thoroughly washed in warm water, and dried before using them for another; one brush should be flat and wide for the open floor, and another small for the corners.

OILING HARD-WOOD FLOORS.

A perfectly smooth hard-wood floor can be kept in good order by daily dusting, and a weekly wiping with a soft cloth wrung out of warm water; the use of soap is to be avoided,


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because it would neutralize the oily coating of the wood, and so destroy the effect sought for. In ordinary households, twice a year is often enough to oil a good floor. The floor should be of hard wood, made quite smooth, as directed in a preceding paragraph, and thoroughly washed and dried. Use boiled linseed-oil, applying it hot, as directed previously, either with stiff brushes or soft rags, and rubbing it well into the grain of the wood. When the floor is made of light-colored wood, a little ground burnt umber or burnt sienna may be mixed with the oil for the purpose of staining it, before applying it to the floor.

POLISHING HARD-WOOD FLOORS.

To make the polishing mixture, put into a basin or bowl a pound and a half of yellow beeswax, five ounces of resin powdered, and one pint of turpentine. Set the basin in a pan of hot water, and stir the polish over the fire until thoroughly blended. Remember that all these ingredients are highly inflammable, and guard against their taking fire. When the polish is smoothly mixed, cool it; if, when it is cold, it is thicker than cold cream, stir in a little more turpentine until it is of that consistency. See that the hard-wood floor is perfectly clean, dry, and free from dust; then apply the polish to it with a soft woollen cloth, rubbing it well into the grain of the wood; after the polish is applied to the floor, rub it very hard with a polishing-brush, which can be found at the house-furnishing shops. In Europe the final polish, after using the brush thoroughly, is given with a piece of soft green baize. Hard-wood floors require polishing two or three times a week.

STAINING WOODEN FLOORS.

The floor must first be carefully prepared according to the directions given earlier in this chapter. The stain can be so


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mixed as to imitate any ordinary wood, the coloring matter being sold at the paint and oil shops. A good brown stain can be made from burnt umber and sienna, the prevailing tint being made to match the tone of the room, and enough coloring-matter being used to properly darken the wood. Mix the color with one pint of turpentine and one quart of raw linseed-oil, and apply it as already directed. The stain should be liquid enough to run readily; the addition of some special dryer will hasten the completion of the process. If a stained floor is sized and varnished, it will keep its color longer than if simply stained. Parts of the floor most used can be re-stained without going over the entire surface. A little raw linseed-oil rubbed into the worn spots renews their brightness. The floor can be dusted frequently, and washed about once a week with a soft cloth wet in warm water.

SIZING STAINED FLOORS.

After the stain is quite dry on the floor, put a pound of size in a basin with a pint of cold water, and melt it by gentle heat; apply it with a flat brush; if the size froths while it is being put upon the floor, dilute it with a little warm water; let the size dry entirely before applying the varnish.

VARNISHING STAINED FLOORS.

Use the best varnish; apply it evenly and liberally, with a flat brush, and then let the floor become quite dry before walking upon it. About once a week wipe the varnished floor with a soft cloth dipped in warm water.

BLACK VARNISH FOR WOOD.

Use enough ivory-black, or prepared liquid black, to color good varnish, and apply a thin coating to the wood. Prepared liquid black can be used to stain or ebonize wood without the addition of varnish when the brilliant black surface


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face is not desired. Blackened wood is cleaned by dusting and wiping with a cloth wet in warm water.

PAINTED FLOORS.

For the brilliant yellow color of painted floors, use three pounds of yellow ochre, powdered, to three quarts of soft water, and three ounces of common glue. Dissolve the glue in the water by gentle heat; then take the liquid from the fire, stir in the paint, and apply it at once to a clean dry floor, using a large flat brush. When the paint is dry, put on a thin coat of boiled linseed-oil, and let the floor dry before walking upon it. When a light lemon-color is desired, use white glue, and two pounds of white lead powdered in place of two of the three pounds of ochre. Paint the floor on a clear, bright day.

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> CHAPTER VI.

> THE DINNER-TABLE AND ITS APPOINTMENTS.

THE extentsion-table has already been referred to as desirable, because its size can be suited to the number of guests. Usually this sort of table is comparatively long and narrow, and does not admit of as acceptable decoration as the round or square table. Then, too, at a long table the guests are less favorably placed than at either of the others. A perfectly appointed square table is pictured in the frontispiece, reproduced from the dining-room of a Euclid-avenue house in Cleveland. The first glance will show its admirable arrangement. The space included in the area of the apartment and the table permits the placing of six, eight, or ten guests, the ideal numbers for enjoyable dinners, the less number giving variety enough to obviate sameness, and the greater not being too large for perfect sociability. The breadth of the table permits the distinguished guests to sit side by side with the host and hostess, and affords room for effective placing of the necessary table appointments, specified in detail a few pages farther on. Delicate napery, flowers enough to add color to the glitter of silver and the sheen of glass, dainty receptacles for salt and pepper, and light candelabra make up a perfectly enticing picture: such surroundings would tempt an anchorite to feast.

This table is laid for the American form of service; the


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various dishes composing the dinner being placed upon the table in their proper succession, as will be hereafter indicated.

TABLECLOTHS.

In choosing table-linen, it should be remembered that heavy material wears longer than the lighter fabrics, and presents in the draping much more effective lines; it does not rumple or crease so readily as sheer material; it needs but little starch when it is done up, and is therefore more pleasant for the user. After a certain point, the price of heavy fabrics is not greater than that of fine goods; but if it were, the difference would be warranted to an economical buyer by the relative results. When from personal preference a very fine, light kind of napery is used, there should be a thick under-cloth: indeed, the under-cloth is always desirable for the protection of the table, as well as for the improvement in the appearance of the cloth; heavy canton flannel makes the best under-cloths. The tablecloth proper should be of wash-material. If the table is large, the cloth may be made in several sections, for convenience in changing it during the dinner, and in washing it. A very effective and inexpensive cloth may be made in this way: Make an openwork centre-piece of any pretty appliquÉ or insertion over some faint shade of wash-satine, following the shape of the table; outside the centre-piece, and reaching from its edges to a point about a quarter of a yard below the edge of the table, have a section of the tablecloth proper; then a wide insertion, another piece of the cloth, and an edge of lace. The border of the cloth upon the laid table in the engraving will give an idea of this arrangement.

The use of lace upon table-linen was of early Italian origin, and was introduced into England before Shakspeare's time; so that we are only reviving a pretty fashion in elaborating our table-service.

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When the effect of brighter color is desired, a strip of plush, velvet, or satin, edged with lace, may be laid the entire length of the table in the centre, over the linen cloth. When it is desirable to increase the light in the dining-room, strips of mirror-glass, with border-glasses for flowers, are used; or their edges are concealed by a thick line of cut flowers. A pretty effect is produced by using large cyrstal bowls filled with cracked ice and ferns, or blocks of ice bedded in moss and ferns; these blocks of ice may be made to hold shell-fish,prawns,crayfish, or dishes of mayonnaise, aspic, melons, or iced puddings. Some provision should be made for the dripping of the ice so that the cloth may not be spoiled.

When embroidery is desired, the outline of the woven design of the cloth can be reproduced with gold or silver thread or gold-colored embroidery-silk: these effects are Oriental. Clusters of flowers and fruit in natural colors are embroidered upon heavy momie-cloth or huckabuck, and the cloths are bordered with deep knotted fringe; some of the South Kensington designs for this kind of work are lovely. These cloths, with napkins to match, are suitable for noon breakfasts, luncheons, and high teas. A beautiful design is that of strawberry leaves and fruit, of natural size and color, embroidered with silk floss upon heavy all-linen momie-cloth. Colored table-linen of good quality is always expensive, and the fact that very few colors retain their freshness after repeated washings makes it comparatively undesirable. Fruit-napkins are not too expensive to permit being put aside when they begin to fade. White linen is always in good taste, and color can be given by the use of fancy china, glass, and flowers; besides, white linen can always be fresh, an important consideration because so much of the enjoyment of the repast depends upon this. If the first glance at the table shows a spotless cloth and


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shining glass and silver, we involuntarily anticipate a good dinner. In households where it is necessary to economize, it would be better to buy plenty of less expensive linen, and spend extra time in doing it up, than to have a scant supply of fine material. Untidy table-linen is as intolerable as it is inexcusable: until the water-courses run dry, and there is no more sunshine and fresh air, there will be no good excuse for soiled tablecloths and napkins. Better a bare wooden table perfectly clean, than a creased and spotted cloth; and we might take a lesson in neatness from the Celestials, and substitute their paper napkins, which are used once and then burned, rather than omit to supply fresh ones at least once a day. This is a point too often neglected in well-to-do households.

TABLE-NAPKINS.

When there is an abundance of table-linen, different-sized napkins are used at the various meals. Dinner-napkins are the largest, and in quality should be heavy enough to obviate the necessity for using starch; of this the least quantity should be employed in doing up table-linen which will insure smoothness after ironing. At some very English dinners, the napkins are changed when the Roman punch comes on, a small, rather fine one being placed before each guest with the punch; with the game, comes another large one; and with the dessert, a soft finer fabric of medium size. At ordinary dinners, the change of napkins is made when the dessert is served; when the special dessert-napkin is used, it should be a little smaller and finer than the dinner-napkin, which is removed with the second course. The fruit-napkin is laid upon the finger-bowl or on the plate which contains it, a small fancy napkin, or doily, being directly under the bowl; when the finger-bowl is lifted from the dessert-plate, the doily is placed under it on the tablecloth,


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a little to the left of the dessert-plate. These doilies admit of many fanciful embroideries, outlines, and sketches made with a fine pen and indelible ink.

For formal breakfasts, large dinner-napkins and finger-bowls are used; for standing breakfasts, the usual breakfast-napkins, but no finger-bowls. Ordinary breakfast-napkins are smaller than those used for dinner: they may be quite plain, or bear the etched or embroidered initial or monogram of the hostess. For elaborate late breakfasts, the napkin may be richly embroidered to match the tablecloth.

Luncheon-napkins are intermediate in size between those used for breakfast and dinner: otherwise they resemble breakfast-napkins.

For the various teas and kettle-drums, small fancy napkins are used. Embroidery, etching, and fringes are quite in good taste. The tray-cloths should match the napkins.

Japanese paper napkins may be used for out-door refreshments where there would be danger of losing or spoiling good linen; but they are never so acceptable.

All napkins should be simply folded at private tables, one of the corners being lifted to cover the dinner bread; but care should be taken not to conceal the bread, lest the guest, taking up the napkin inadvertently, should throw the bread upon the floor. When the dinner is in progress, the napkin lies upon the knees, or is used with one hand; after the napkin has been used, it is to be laid upon the table loosely, unless at the family table one is expected to place it in a napkin-ring.

The use of the napkin by table-attendants calls for a few words. A perfectly clean large napkin should be carried upon the left arm; and in passing dishes the attendant should cover the hand holding the dish with the napkin in such a way as to conceal the hand. When white gloves are worn by the attendants, the napkin is ready in case of


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accident. In pouring iced wines, a special napkin is required for each bottle; in pouring the other wines, unless the attendant's hand is gloved, it should be entirely concealed by the napkin.

There should always be an extra supply of clean napkins upon the side-table, to replace one when needed at the table, or to use in case of accident.

If a guest should drop a napkin while at table, no effort should be made to recover it until a sign can be made to the attendant to restore it. If it falls under the table, no attempt should be made to reach it, lest one's neighbor at table be inconvenienced. At the dessert, the dessert or fruit napkin is used, if they are placed, and the large white napkin is employed only to dry the tips of the fingers after they have been dipped in the finger-bowls; otherwise the large napkin continues in use to the end of the dinner.

WASHING TABLE-LINEN.

A few words may be in place concerning the washing of table-linen. When it falls with the work of the table-girls, there is often trouble in the kitchen and laundry, especially about the boiling and the use of the tubs, when there is a large family to be cooked and washed for. The table-linen need not be boiled often; and its washing can be greatly facilitated by soaking it for a hour or longer, before the first washing, in lukewarm water in which powdered borax has been dissolved, using half a cupful of powdered borax to a large tubful of water; then wash the linen with very little good hard soap, rinse it in plenty of water till the water looks clear, and hang it out to dry at once. Table-linen requires very little starch, and not any when it is heavy.

The ordinary stains upon table-linen yield to warm soapy water. Salt should be thrown upon claret-stains directly they are made, and they should be washed out in clear water


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when the meal is over. Iron-rust can generally be extracted by using lemon and salt, and then rinsing the cloth. Fruit-stains can be effaced by using a tablespoonful of chloride of lime and a teaspoonful of lemon-juice or vinegar in a quart of cold water; as soon as the stain is washed out, rinse the linen thoroughly in plenty of clean water. Mildew on linen can be removed by soaking it in the solution of lime and lemon-juice, and then rinsing it frequently; if the mildew is obstinate, mix enough powdered starch into soft soap to nearly thicken it, add to it some salt and lemon-juice, cover both sides of the cloth with it, and expose it to the sun, letting it lie upon the grass, and renewing the paste until the stain disappears.

Iron table-linen single until quite dry, with a hot iron made smooth by rubbing it upon fine sand and then on a waxed cloth; when starch is used, a little salt or wax, dissolved in it, prevents the sticking of the iron. Iron napkins in square folds; fold tablecloths by the thread, or roll them upon a round stick, as long as the cloth is wide, as soon as they are ironed.

SILVER AND CUTLERY.

The use of silver, or silver-plated ware, is so general that most housekeepers have their favorite methods of cleaning and preserving it from defacement; but a few points may be useful to the inexperienced. Careful housewives may take a hint from dealers, and keep their silver, when it is not in use, wrapped in soft tissue-paper, and closed from the air in its original cases, or in paper boxes; this will largely obviate the necessity for the frequent cleaning which injures plated ware quite as much as use.

The powders generally sold for polishing silver are composed of minute organizations of silicious nature, which produce a polish by covering the surface of the metal with innumerable imperceptible scratches, thus destroying some


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of the silver. If powder is considered necessary for cleaning silver, it should be almost impalpable, so fine as to pass through delicate muslin, like precipitated chalk or jeweller's rouge. Add three ounces of the chalk, and two ounces of liquid ammonia, to one quart of soft water, and, after thoroughly shaking these ingredients together, wet a soft cloth with the mixture, rub it over the silver, and then polish it with a piece of soft chamois. If silver is habitually washed with hot water in which soap and a very little washing-soda is dissolved , it will not often require any other cleaning; the silver should be wiped dry with a soft cloth, and then gently rubbed and polished with clean chamois-skin.

When the chamois is soiled, it can be washed as follows: Dissolve in warm water enough soap to make a thick lather; in this wash the chamois, rubbing it between the hands or on a wash-board; put more soap upon stained parts, and continue the rubbing until the chamois is clean; then rinse it through two or three waters, lukewarm, squeeze out the water, and hang it upon a clothes-line, in the sun, without wringing it; as it dries, take it down, and shake it with a sharp, snapping noise, then pull it straight out, and again hang it up; repeat the shaking and pulling until the skin is quite dry and soft.

Chamois-skin which is used for filtering should be washed carefully as follows: Make a very weak solution of washing-soda, borax, or any alkali, with warm water; wash the chamois in it without soap, and then rinse it through several cold waters; every time the chamois is used, wash it in this way, and dry and stretch it as directed above.

The use of steel knives as part of the dinner-equipage is regaining favor in this country. For a long time silver-plated blades maintained the supremacy; but now the sharp steel blade, set in an ivory or fancy wood handle, is found upon the best-laid tables. For the white ivory and bone


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handles, the best polishing-agent is finely powdered chalk. Mother-of-pearl is brightened by washing it in salted water, with subsequent hard rubbing with dry chamois-skin; fruit-stains on the handles can be carefully scraped off, and the places polished. The steel blades of table-knives can be cleaned and sharpened at the same time by rubbing them carefully upon a board covered with emery-cloth, or by using emery-powder as bath-brick is used. The latter is the agent most generally known for cleaning steel knife-blades. It should be finely powdered and sifted to insure uniformity, and then applied either with a cloth or a cork, dipped in cold water, or with a piece of raw potato; before the knife is scoured, it should be washed clean, and then after scouring the blade can be wiped free from dust on a soft, clean cloth.

Of the use of the knife at table, there can be but little diversity of opinion among people of refinement in this country. The fork is used whenever it is possible to separate food with it, the knife being called into use only when it is required for cutting, but never to convey food to the mouth. As a matter of convenience, the knife-blade does not contain food to be lifted from the plate to the mouth as well as the three- or four-pronged fork: its use was fostered by the old-fashioned two-pronged steel fork, which is not often seen now. The fork is held in the left hand when it is used with the knife for cutting; otherwise it is held in the right. Apart from the general disuse of the knife in eating, its approach to the mouth is really a source of discomfort to a nervous or sensitive person; if only for that reason, the practice of using it ought to be abandoned. When the knife is not in actual use, it should be laid upon the upper right-hand side of the plate. When the fork is put down momentarily, it may be laid across the plate from either the right or the left, or crossed upon the knife. When both have been


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used finally, they should be laid diagonally across the plate, with both handles toward the right hand: this is understood by well-trained waiters to be the signal for removing them, together with the plate. The question sometimes arises, of the proper disposition to make of them in case the plate is passed to the end of the table for a second supply of meat. When the dinner is served in several courses, it is not customary to ask for the second quantity, because the appetite is satisfied by the variety served; but if from preference more is wanted, or at plain dinners, where only one or two meats appear, the plate is to be passed, the knife and fork may be laid upon the cloth if they are not in a condition to soil it, or both may be held in the right hand over the cloth. When the small plate for bread and butter is employed, as indicated in the description of the laying of the table, the knife and fork may be placed upon that until the large plate is returned. When the meal is served in several courses, knives and forks are either laid with the service of each course, or as many as will be required are placed when the cover is first laid,--with the exception of the small two-pronged silver or nickel fork for raw oysters and clams, which is laid upon the plate containing them; and the silver fruit knife and fork, which are placed upon the dessert-plate, beside the finger-bowl, and then laid upon the table by the guest. As has already been said, when there is not an abundance of silver, arrangements should be made near the dining-room for washing it quickly in hot water containing a very little washing-soda, for the purpose of removing the taste and odor of food.

Fine steel knives should never be exposed to intense heat; because it destroys their temper, and thus impairs their cutting qualities. Good carving-knives should not be used for cutting bread, or in the kitchen: they should be cleaned so carefully as not to turn their edges, and always kept sharp


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by the use of a fine whetstone; a carving-steel more often injures than aids a carving-knife unless the person sharpening the knife has watched a butcher using a steel. A medium-size French cook-knife, of Sabatier's manufacture, makes an excellent carver, because the blade is thin and flexible, and made of good steel. There should always be in the kitchen good knives for cutting bread, meat, and vegetables; and a special knife for using about the stove. The best knife for this purpose is a medium-size artist's palette-knife of steel, with a wooden handle; the blade is flexible and broad, admirably adapted for turning small cakes, potatoes, and omelettes, and wholly unlikely to be injured by the heat because it has no cutting edge.

CHINA AND GLASS.

When there need be no limit but taste and fancy in the furnishing of a table, beautiful effects can be produced with china and glass. When it is necessary to economize, only plain white china, and glass free from any set ornamentation, should be bought; because it is far easier and cheaper to replace plain ware if any is broken. Generally both decorated china and ornamental glass are sold in sets, and dealers are unwilling to supply any single piece; besides, the plain ware is less expensive originally than that profusely ornamented, and it combines well with odd bits of colored china and glass and bright flowers, and is always in good taste. Cut glass is always expensive, and easily broken. If exposed to sudden changes in temperature, it will crack by the force of contraction or expansion; for instance, if fragile glass is put into hot water in frosty weather, it will often break. Glass should for this reason always be washed in tepid or cool water, using the hand to remove spots; it may then be set in a rack to dry, and afterwards be polished with clean, soft chamois, or cloth free from lint. The deep


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indentations in fine cut glass can be polished by using a soft brush dipped in a little powdered chalk or whiting.

Some of the finer kinds of glass-ware are annealed, or seasoned to bear heat, in the process of manufacture, and are therefore less likely to break than the cheaper sorts which have not undergone this operation. A somewhat similar process may be followed, which results in increasing the durability of the glass and china submitted to it. Put the articles which require to be seasoned in a large pan full of cold water; place the pan over a gentle fire, and slowly heat the water until it begins to boil; then remove the pan to the coldest part of the stove, and let the heat decrease gradually until the water is quite cold. The articles thus tempered can then be wiped and made ready for use. After this first heating process, neither china nor crockery should be allowed to become very hot, either in using it at table or in washing it, because its glaze will be gradually seamed with cracks. Once this enamel is cracked, both water and grease will penetrate the china, and it will even gradually absorb flavors from food: the cracking of the glaze also renders the china more liable to break. If in washing glass and china a wooden bowl or tub is used, there is comparatively little of the danger of chipping or breaking it which attends the use of a metal utensil.

When decorated china is selected, nice discrimination is required. Unless a bizarre effect is sought, the pattern should show unity and delicacy: all grotesque ornamentation should be avoided, as also should glaring contrasts of color and a profusion of gilding. Gilded china always wears unequally; when not in actual use, it should be kept in a dry, dark closet, wrapped in soft paper; dampness tarnishes the gilt, and rubbing or scratching obliterates it. When gilt china is very much tarnished, the outer film may be removed by rubbing it very lightly and evenly with a


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piece of soft chamois dipped in jeweller's rouge, or in finely powdered chalk which has been sifted through thin silk. When gilt china is washed, the water should be lukewarm, and contain a little borax or soda: the china should be well drained, and then very lightly wiped with a soft cloth. All richly decorated fine china requires the same careful treatment. The finest Oriental china is of delicate even colors, without a line of decoration or a shade of contrast, but the effect is indescribably beautiful. In modern china, the most beautiful effects are in soft flower and sea-shell tints; except in a few sorts, such as Royal Worcester, where superb contrasts of color and gilt are made. For high teas and kettle-drums, the grotesque harlequin sets are sometimes used. After all, the choice of china is entirely a matter of individual taste.

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> CHAPTER VII.

LAYING AND SERVING THE TABLE.

THE relative convenience of different-shaped tables has been referred to. Decidedly, the square and round tables are the most desirable; because, placed in a circle or nearly facing the host, no guest is given precedence except those who occupy the seats of honor at the right hand of the host and hostess respectively. If the shape of the room will not admit of the use of a round or square table, a good effect may be produced by placing the host and hostess at opposite sides of the long extension-table, facing each other: this position draws the entire company relatively nearer their entertainers, and those in whose honor the feast is given, and so increases both interest and enjoyment.

It has become the custom, in laying a table, to avoid uniformity of decoration in all matters except the massing of a few choice varieties of flowers,--unless a "pink dinner," or some such entertainment, is being given, when the purpose is to emphasize some special color; then the china, glass, flowers, lamp or candle shades, and even the ladies' costumes, take on the prevailing tone of color. Details of these effects are given elsewhere in the book. Of course the laying of all the covers must be uniform; and it is agreed that the service of a dinner is facilitated, and the general effect heightened, when more than one set of silver and cutlery is laid at first. There are so many dainty forms of


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such table-service, that a well-laid cover becomes a beautiful picture, especially when the table is large enough to admit of the proper placing of the various aids to the guests' comfort and convenience. Whatever form of service is chosen for the dinner, the articles used in good houses, in laying each cover, consist of the napkin, a dinner roll or a thick, small cut of fresh bread, the necessary cutlery and silver, the water-tumbler, and glasses for the different wines when wine is served, and, at convenient intervals, receptacles for the condiments, and iced water or ice. Individual salt-cellars are in vogue, but several larger silver or cut-glass ones may be placed upon the table, as well as some unique and pretty pepper-casters of metal or china. The salad-oil and vinegar are in double cruet-stands upon the table, or on the sideboard ready to be placed upon the table when the salad is served. The table-sauces are put on the side-board until required, being left in their original bottles. The large table-caster is a thing of the past, and is banished even from the sideboard unless it is really an ornamental piece. Individual water-bottles, with tumblers to cover them, are much favored, because of their convenience to this water-drinking nation. Dishes of broken ice are permissible at small dinners. The water-bottles may be filled with ice and frozen without much trouble, according to directions given later on. Some caterers make a specialty of supplying these frozen carafes. The number of wine-glasses is, of course, regulated by the variety of wines to be served: this point will be amplified later.

Extra knives, forks, and spoons are upon the sideboard, ready to be placed by the attendants, between the courses: the oyster-fork is upon the plate with the shellfish, or is laid when they are served. When butter is served, as it often is in this country, a small plate and a special knife are placed for it. A nice idea for family dinners, or luncheons, is to


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use a small plate, about the size of a saucer, upon which the butter can be placed, together with the bread, and the salt when large salt-cellars are used. The teaspoons are upon the sideboard, to be placed upon the table when required. Small spoons are needed when coffee is served in the little cups used after dinner for black coffee, or cafè noir. When there is not an abundance of silver, there should be, in a room adjoining the dining-room, all the conveniences for quickly washing and drying it; i.e., hot water, soap, and soft towels; a small piece of washing-soda dissolved in the hot water will thoroughly cleanse the silver from any odor or taste of food.

Uniform color has been indicated for the general table equipage; but if the table is large enough to admit of more than one group of flowers, or colored china, they should differ far enough to produce a contrast; and a change, however slight, should be made at every repast. At all seasons, flowers make a charming variation in the appearance of even the most simply laid table; and variety at the table is a great charm, quite as necessary to the enjoyment of the repast as is a good choice of dishes. Especially in the spring and early summer, the appetite is so capricious that it can be affected by such trifles of service as light and color. The perfect hostess will not despise even trifles, where the enjoyment of her guests is concerned.

The lighting of a dinner-table is of importance. The pleasantest light falls from candles or lamps, which should be so placed as not to incommode the diners. Lamps are sometimes suspended over the table, as are gas-fixtures. Side lights are apt to cross the light so that it is unpleasant: if they are used, they should be shaded. When it is desirable to give a prevailing tone of color, the lights and their globes or shades will be found most effective auxiliaries: details of these possibilities are given in the chapter on dining-room fittings.

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The frontispiece represents the general effect of a well-laid table, and the detail of a cover is given on p. 106: if the directions are carefully studied, there will be no difficulty in carrying them out with the aid of the picture. We have in these two pictures the table laid for the service of a dinner in the American style, which admits of great beauty of ornamentation, and does not involve those tiresome and troublesome changes of the entire table-equipage according to the formal English method, where the cloth is changed with each course.

The table-cloth for all dinners should be white, and without perceptible folds or creases. It is not always easy to accomplish this triumph of laundry-work in small establishments; but it is possible if the cloth is carefully ironed, and rolled at once upon a long, round piece of wood, like a curtain-roller. As has been already said, the pretty fashion prevails of laying a strip of bright-colored plush or satin down the middle of the table, with a vine of smilax or ivy along the edges; as a variation, a strip of wide, very open lace, of a definite pattern, laid over a piece of satin, silk, or cambric, is sometimes employed. In arranging the table decorations upon and near this bit of color, due regard to harmony must be observed. The table-napkins should match the pattern of the cloth, and be large and square: they should be folded, and so placed that the guest will not be exposed to any awkwardness in using them: for instance, if a roll or piece of bread is hidden in one, it may be thrown upon the floor by a careless movement; the dinner bread is best placed at the front or side of the plate, laid upon the napkin, but not concealed by it.

After the ornamental centre of the table has been planned (care being taken that it shall not be high enough to obstruct the view of the entire table), and the various dishes placed for condiments, relishes, and such small dishes as the chosen service permits,--the flowers being kept fresh until just before


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[Illustration: An Illustration of a table decorated fancy with wine glasses and flower arrangements on top of it.]




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the dinner is served,--each guest's place or cover is laid as follows: upon the left, a soup-spoon and two silver forks, one large; in the centre, the dinner-plate, upon which the plate of oysters or clams is to be set just before serving the dinner, or, if there is to be no shellfish, the napkin may be put here with the dinner bread; when the shellfish is served, the bread and napkin may be laid just above the spoon and forks, together with the salt-cellar and water-tumbler, or the small carafe with the tumbler reversed upon it; at the right of the cover, a steel knife with a pearl or ivory handle, for meats, and a silver dinner-knife of medium size; sometimes a smaller knife with a silver blade and some fanciful handle is placed to be used for cheese, salad, or butter when it is served, as it generally is upon American tables. The disuse of butter at dinner is to be traced to those countries where it is less plentiful than in America, and it is such a useful article of food that it is to be hoped the fashion in question will not generally prevail. When wine is served, the glasses may be symmetrically arranged at the upper right of the cover. When all the dinner-wines are used, it is well to have some of the more fragile glasses remain upon the sideboard until they are needed, placing at first upon the table a hock-glass for the white wine, a small wine-glass for the sherry, and claret and champagne glasses; this is the number of glasses placed in the picture, in addition to a goblet for iced water. The glasses should be about four inches from the edge of the table. The glasses for port, Madeira, Burgundy, and the liqueurs should be upon the sideboard, together with extra glasses of all kinds to replace any accidentally overturned or broken.

Also, upon the sideboard or table, there should be plenty of fresh napkins, plates, and silver, the finger-bowls and dishes which are to be used during the dessert, the cups and saucers for coffee, sugar, cigars or cigarettes when there are


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gentlemen present, and the wines and liqueurs which are not iced.

Before placing the dessert, crumbs can be best removed by using a large silver knife; it is better than a brush, which only scatters the crumbs about the cloth and over the floor. In some houses, the old custom still prevails of removing the cloth before the dessert is served, so as to place it upon the polished mahogany table: this implies ample attendance. The table must be bright enough to reflect every glint of light which falls on it; then, in the removal of the cloth, it must be rolled or folded from one end of the table to the other by a servant on either side of the table, and others must be near to assist them by raising and replacing the table-ornaments, otherwise the process is awkward and tedious. At best, it involves much reaching over the shoulders of the guests, unless they are seated far apart.

After the crumbs have been removed, or the cloth changed, the finger-bowls are put upon the table, and the dessert is served. A small colored or embroidered napkin is laid on a dessert-plate, usually of decorated china, and the glass bowl is set upon the napkin. Sometimes a small glass containing a little perfumed water is set in the bowl: at the end of the dinner this glass is raised to the lips to refresh them, and the fingers are dipped into the bowl. The dinner-napkin is used for drying the hands, and is then laid without folding at the side of the plate. Unless at very informal family dinners, fresh napkins are always laid. The embroidered napkins under the bowls are to be placed under them on the table-cloth, when the plate is required for the dessert. If the dessert-napkins are colored and of wash material, they are to be used if fruit is served; otherwise the dinner-napkin remains in use. Upon the plate, by the side of the finger-bowl, the dessert silver is laid, a fruit-knife and teaspoon, and a silver fork if the dessert includes any juicy large fruit


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such as pears or pine-apple. The guest lays this silver upon the table, and places the bowl, with the doily under it, within easy reach. If there is a fruit-napkin, it is laid ready for use; and, unless a fresh white napkin is served, the dinner-napkin remains upon the knees until the end of the dinner: when the white dessert-napkin is laid, the dinner-napkin is to be taken away before the service of the dessert. Other details in regard to the napkin are given where the table-linen is discussed.

When the frozen carafes or water-bottles are to be prepared at home, the following method will be found easy and satisfactory. Unless small carafes for individual use are desired, the ordinary glass ones will answer: the use of cut or pressed glass bottles is attended with the danger of breaking during the freezing. Smooth carafes are best, holding about a quart: they are filled with fresh water to the bottom of the neck, and set in a wooden tub containing enough freezing-mixture to reach two-thirds up the sides. The freezing-mixture is composed of three parts of pounded ice to one of salt. The carafes are covered first with a clean cloth, and then with a heavy blanket, and allowed to remain undisturbed until the water is frozen. If they are left over night, as they sometimes are in summer, sufficient drainage must be insured to prevent the entrance of the melted freezing mixture to the carafes.

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> CHAPTER VIII.

> FLOWERS, BILLS OF FARE, AND WINES.

FLOWERS AT TABLE.

FLOWERS will probably always hold favor as table decorations, because of their beauty and freshness; but the use of large and elaborate flower-stands, or high ornamental figures of sweetmeats and confectionery, Épergnes, or plate, should be deprecated. They obstruct the intercourse of the guests, which to be enjoyable must be unconstrained. In summer, a very effective centre-piece for the table may be formed by wreathing a block of ice with smilax, ivy, or ferns; of course, care must be taken to insure perfect drainage, or a sufficiently large receptacle to hold the water must be placed under the ice, otherwise the tablecloth will be soiled. The size and shape of the table will decide the degree of ornamentation admissible.

A round table might be arranged somewhat after the following fashion, using only flowers for decoration. In the service à la Russe, the small dessert-dishes and the relishes would be interspersed. A fine cloth being laid, the centre of the table would be filled with either a block of ice wreathed in vines or leaves, or a stand of dwarf foliage-plants, or a circular bed of flowers of some pronounced color, usually of one variety; next, in the outer circle, contrasting flowers, or small dessert-dishes and relishes harmoniously arranged so far as color and form are concerned; and at the edge of the table, the service of covers. In this


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plan no calculation is made for placing on the table the different dishes composing the dinner; when the service involves this, space should be left for the dishes, large enough to allow a margin of the cloth to show between the centre decoration and the dishes served.

When flowers are not in season, a centre may be made of a china figure supporting an open dish for fruits; other fruits and nuts may be dispersed in low dishes around the centre-piece, and beyond them the small relishes, varied with a few flowers or even leaves.

For a long table, when flowers are not abundant, the strip of colored plush or satin is very effective: it should be bordered with ivy, moss, or any trailing vine; smilax, blackberry-vines, woodbine, and honeysuckle are admirable for this purpose. When only moss or leaves are used, a few bright flowers or berries, placed at intervals, heighten the brilliancy of the effect. One of the loveliest of long-table decorations is a profusely flowering vine of honeysuckle, laid the entire length of the table. Another beautiful centre is an oval mass of fruit and leaves, placed low upon the table, the middle of the mound being slightly elevated.

An exquisite summer centre-piece is a block of ice, wreathed in ferns, with an outer circle of water-lilies and their leaves and curling stems. But flowers of pronounced odors are sometimes objectionable. Low dishes filled with violets and pansies are most beautiful when arranged on a white cloth. A low Épergne, or a china figure supporting a basket, either to be filled with fruit, and set in a broad circle of pansies, is very beautiful: flat dishes containing the sweets may be sunk among the flowers. Nasturtium-vines, with the leaves and flowers, are bright and effective. Of course the queen of all table-flowers is the rose, and the variety is innumerable. In flower-decoration, there should be one predominating color.

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In summer each gentleman is supplied with a boutonnière, and each lady with a corsage-bouquet. The bouquets are tied with ribbons of contrasting colors, and a large pin is stuck into the cloth for the purpose of fastening the flowers to the dress.

At elaborate entertainments, when it is desired to present the ladies with some souvenir, bouquet clasp-pins may be substituted for the ordinary large pin, or the large pin may be made of gold or silver. Very pretty silver pins can be bought for from fifty cents to one dollar, and more fanciful ones and bouquet-pins for from one dollar upwards, according to their style of ornamentation.

MENUS, OR BILLS OF FARE.

In the choice of menu-cards, much taste may be displayed. Extreme ornamentation should be avoided, and the names of the dishes written legibly with ink, either in the centre of the ornamentation, when space is left there, or upon the plain side of the card. When small cards are used, one should be laid at each place: this is desirable when the number of guests is large, for then on the reverse of the card can be written the name of the guest who is to occupy the seat. When large menu-cards are used, one answers for four or five guests. The large cards are more elaborate, and are often framed flat, or set on low ornamental easels. The names of the different wines are to be placed opposite the dishes with which they are to be served. The cook and head waiter should both have a copy of the bill of fare, so that they may know when to serve the various dishes composing the dinner.

The ability to compose a bill of fare judiciously implies taste and discrimination. The fact should always be remembered, that a heavy soup will so far cloy the appetite as to render one indifferent to the rest of the dinner, while


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a clear soup refreshes and prepares one for the enjoyment of the succeeding solids. The fish and entrÉes should not be substantial enough to satisfy hunger entirely: the relishes will then stimulate the appetite for the heavier dishes. The service of Roman punch before the roast refreshes the palate, and prepares the more perfect enjoyment of the succeeding dishes: it is as necessary to the service of a good dinner as cheese is with the plain salad. When olives are on the table, they go well with entrÉes of game; French chestnuts are excellent with poultry; and almonds, blanched and roasted with salt, are enjoyable with Madeira or sherry before the sweet entremets. Only a plain vegetable salad should accompany the roast or game, and a bit of any old cheese may be passed with the salad. Cheese straws or cheese crusts may be served with the salad. Although the cheese belongs with the salad, it enters into some delicate dishes, such as fondus and soufflÉs, which may come to the table either after the oysters or soup, as relishes, or before the large sweets at dessert, previous to the service of the nuts and fruit. Then comes the dessert, placed as already indicated. If the dinner is small, it is perfectly permissible for the hostess to make the coffee at the table, or it may be served in the drawing-room later.

Even with the best-chosen menu, the success of a dinner depends on the skill of the cook. A good cook appreciates the value of sauces, and will give much care to their preparation, and, above all, will endeavor to preserve the natural flavors of the different dishes. All mingling of flavors is objectionable, except in sauces and salads.

The details of the bill of fare are as follows:--

THE SHELLFISH (Huîtres) includes small raw oysters, and Little Neck or hard-shell clams, on the half-shell; at the same time, brown bread cut very thin and buttered, and cut lemons, salt, cayenne, and sharp table-sauces are placed upon the table.

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THE SOUP (Potage) is varied according to the character of the dinner. If it is choice, no matter how small it is, there are always two soups; one a perfectly clear soup, or consommÉ, and the other a rich, thick one, such as a bisque or cream. A thick cut of bread, or a roll with crisp crust, is placed upon the napkin when the cover is laid, to be used after the shellfish.

THE FISH (Poisson) may be of any large kind, boiled and served with a good sauce and plain boiled potatoes. If the dinner is large or elaborate, there should be two kinds of fish, one boiled, and the other baked and served with a garnish, or small fish with a sauce and garnish, and some special dish of potatoes, such as Parisienne or Hollandaise. If shellfish is used here, the dish should be large and hot.

THE RELISHES (Hors-d'œuvre), which are placed upon the table in the American dinner and the service à la Russe, include all kinds of table-sauces and catsups, salted almonds, pickles, olives, caviare, vinaigrettes, small cold entrÉes such as bouchÉes and pâtè-de-foie-gras, pickled fish and small tongues, and individual escalops.

THE REMOVES (or RelevÉs) consist of boiled, baked, and braised meats, poultry, and large game, large veal, ham, game, and fish pies, and large cold joints, such as tongue and ham, generally served with a garnish of vegetables; the remove at a small dinner may consist of an elaborately dressed cold fish, if the regular fish service has been omitted.

THE SIDE-DISHES (EntrÉes) are the small hot meats garnished, such as cutlets, chops breaded or larded, steaks with sauces garnished, small meats and poultry larded, sweet-breads garnished, fricandeaux, fricassÉes, ragoûts, escalopes, all hot; hot raised pies, pâtÉs, and rissoles, combination salads of vegetables, salads with mayonnaise, such as chicken and lobster; in brief, any dish in size less than a joint or a roast.

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ROMAN PUNCH (Sorbet).--There are many delicious ices served under the general name of Roman punch, all having a combination of frozen fruit-sherbet and some fine liqueur, cordial, wine, or spirit; served in the midst of the dinner, when the palate needs the sense of refreshment they give, they prepare it for renewed enjoyment, and render it capable of appreciating the intense flavor of the roast and the bouquet of the Burgundy or champagne, that follow them.

THE ROAST (Rôte).--For family dinners, the roast may be a joint of any meat preferred; but for special occasions it should be of venison, larded hare, or some large game-bird. If wild duck is served, there should be more than one, because only the breast is carved; when canvas-backs are used, half a breast cut in one piece is served to each guest. Smaller birds, either roasted or broiled, may be served in this course. All game should be underdone. A garnish of watercress or celery is used with birds, and always currant-jelly and special sauces with venison and hare.

SALAD (Salade).--A green salad is the proper accompaniment of the roast; it may be of watercress, lettuce, celery, chiccory, escarole, burnet, nasturtium (leaves, fruit, and flowers), corn-salad, dandelion, tarragon, fennel, mint, young onions, and any of the green sweet herbs: the five first-named varieties are the most generally used. Sometimes tomatoes and cucumbers are served here; but they more properly belong, the cucumbers with the fish, and the tomatoes with a mayonnaise among the entrÉes. The best dressing for a green salad is of oil, vinegar, salt, and pepper: a salad with mayonnaise belongs among the entrÉes, as do the salads of cold cooked vegetables. A little old, rich cheese may be served with the green salad if desired.

SECOND-COURSE SIDE-DISHES (Entremets).--After the roast and its accompanying green salad, it is customary to serve hot vegetables dressed with sauces, hot meat, fish,


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or game pies, croquettes and fritters with sauces, eggs in elaborate form with sauces, large cold side-dishes; and the second-course sweets such as croquettes, charlottes, croquantes, timbales, cold puddings in moulds, hot puddings with sauces, pastries, moulded jellies and creams, meringues, soufflÉs, and macedoines.

DESSERT (Des'sert).--The dessert consists of the small cold sweets, such as Éclairs, fancy cakes,