PART FIRST.

THOUGHTS AND MAXIMS ON HOUSEKEEPING.

> THE
PRACTICAL HOUSEKEEPER.

> PART I.
THOUGHTS AND MAXIMS ON HOUSEKEEPING.

> CHAPTER I.

DR. STARK says, "The only test of the utility of knowledge is its promotion of the happiness of mankind." Viewed thus, the subject we are about to treat presents claims superior to most others, and is eminently worthy of study. The superintendence of a house, and the management, forethought, domestic economy, and good sterling sense requisite for the discharge of this duty, demand application and perseverance, and ought to receive as much, at least, as is bestowed on the acquisition of music, painting, or any of the ornamental accomplishments. Young ladies are educated to shine in society; would it not be well if they were also sedulously taught--by a system of training--to perform the homely duties which make home the abode of comfort?

It has been said that Americans in general have little attachment to home. Often, indeed, is the domestic comfort, so prized in England, absent from the abodes even of the wealthy, in our land. May not this undeniable fact, and the roving propensity of young people in this country, be attributable to the circumstance that girls, whose condition exempts them from servitude, are brought up wholly without reference to home duties? Even those who may depend on their own labor for a subsistence, are taught some trade, or superficially qualified as teachers, or instructed in various branches of needlework; while they know little or nothing of household matters; though such knowledge would enable them to command an independence. It is not alone the wife and mother who should be skilled in domestic affairs; every girl who has emerged from childhood, is liable to be called on to take charge of a house. If the mother is bedridden, or deceased, why should the father of daughters sixteen or eighteen years old be compelled to look elsewhere for a housekeeper, and intrust the management to the hands of a stranger?

The general cultivation of this valuable knowledge, too, would make the occupation of a "help," or servant, more acceptable to thousands who now prefer starvation in a garret, or the ruin of health in sedentary employments. The more attention is turned to this branch of learning, the more will its importance be recognized, and the higher place will it assume in the list of useful arts; and a degree of respect being accorded to those who excel, more will be found ready to engage in it as a profession. What an improvement would be made, by such a result, in our social and domestic life!

We would not be understood to say


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that we would have a woman merely an upper servant in the house it is her province to guide, or that we undervalue intellectual attainments and elegant occupations. But it will not detract from the charm of these, nor from the dignity of the well-bred lady--to be familiar with the routine of domestic duties, well acquainted with the minutiæ of household economy, and competent to direct, or if need be, teach her servants; ay, even, to do things herself in cases of necessity. On the other hand, will it not enhance admiration and strengthen regard, to see that she possesses these acquirements, and is willing to exercise them to promote the comfort of others? Who can tell that she may not, at some period of life, be thrown into circumstances where the mere fine lady would be utterly helpless, or where intellectual refinement and distinguished position may prove less available than industry, ingenuity, and practical common sense?

What is a kingdom, a merchant's counting-house, or a mechanic's workshop without a head? We do not mean a mere master, but a presiding intellect to plan, contrive, direct, and guide. Not less absolute or important is the rule of a sensible woman in her own home. She has full scope for the exercise of good taste, prudence, and refinement. She is invested with an amount of responsibility she perhaps never dreamed of, for her influence over the temper, habits, actions, and dispositions of those about her is very great, and great in proportion should be her self-government, for with self the command must begin, if it is to be worth having.

There is much talk, nowadays, about the "rights" and "mission" of woman. Without entering into the merits of the subject, we would only say, that if women, from the highest to the lowest, were systematically educated to wield properly the great power they indubitably possess--a power which can be made to move the secret springs of action and the machinery of business--they would have little reason to complain of the want of influence; and were they so trained to enter actively and energetically into domestic employments and affairs, that none could deem it a pursuit unworthy of them, they would find ample scope for the exercise of their faculties, and the acquisition of means to live.

There is a medium, however, in all things. A woman who worries all within her reach by her ultra-housewifery, who damps one down with soap and water, poisons one with furniture polish, takes away one's appetite by the trouble there is about cooking the simplest thing, and fidgets one by over-done tidiness and cleanliness, is almost as much to be avoided as a downright slut, or the veriest simpleton who ever took counsel with her stupid servant as to how long a potato ought to be boiled; she exercises a pernicious influence on all, and is a misery to herself and others.

Neither would we have domestic economy and home duties vaunted, or made the constant theme of conversation; they are the private employments of a woman; she must study other things in order to entertain her relatives and friends. Those who talk most of their duties are generally those who perform them most imperfectly. When a man returns to his home, or enters his sitting-room, fatigued and perhaps disappointed by the business of the day, he does not want to be annoyed by the detail of domestic accidents, the misdemeanors of servants, and the cheating of tradespeople; he has had his worries during the day, too, and, with that pride, or reserve, or want of confidence which is peculiar to most men, he perhaps keeps them to himself. Let his example be followed in all cases where advice, or support, or assistance is not absolutely necessary,


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and pleasant, cheerful themes be chosen, or some amusement selected which shall render the evening and leisure hours those of relaxation and enjoyment, and tend to give a charm and zest to home which no other place can possess. Men are free to come and go as they list, they have so much liberty of action, so many out-door resources if wearied with in-doors, that it is good policy, if nothing else, to make home attractive as well as comfortable.

An education in household matters should be complete--comprising the knowledge requisite for use in all departments.

Many a girl can make good pastry, jellies, &c., for an evening party, and being much complimented for her labors by those who relish the produce, forthwith fancies herself a capital housewife, while, in all probability, she scarcely knows how vegetables are cooked, is profoundly ignorant of the prices of the commonest articles of daily consumption, and could not tell of what material a housecloth ought to be made. And how few there are who could, in case of need, make a cup of good gruel, or a glass of white-wine whey, or even a little broth or barley-water! We do not say that they could not manage to produce something resembling these things, but the capricious appetite of the invalid would reject the tasteless messes. Many have suffered martyrdom from this one neglected branch of female education.

Perhaps few branches of female education are more useful than great readiness in figures. Accounts should be regularly kept, and not the smallest article omitted to be entered. If balanced every week or month, the income and outgoings will be ascertained with facility, and their proportions to each other duly observed. Some people fix on stated sums to be appropriated to each different article, as house, clothes, pocket, education of children, &c. Whatever may be the amount of household expenditure, a certain mode should be adopted and strictly adhered to. Besides the regular account-book, in which the receipt of money and every payment should be regularly entered, a common-place book should be always at hand for the entry of observations regarding agreements with servants, tradesmen, and various other subjects, so as to enable the lady at once to ascertain the exact state of the affairs under her immediate management.

A minute account of the annual income and the times of payment should be taken in writing; likewise an estimate of the supposed amount of each article of expense; and those who are early accustomed to calculations on domestic articles will acquire so accurate a knowledge of what their establishment requires, as will enable them to keep the happy medium between prodigality and parsimony.

Some aver that they have no capacity for this matter, no taste for that. But if the things referred to are duties, cultivate a taste--perserve in endeavoring to improve a capacity for them. This world is a beautiful one, spite of what grumblers say, and thousands would find it a much happier one if they studied more what they ought to do, and sought their pleasure or indulged their fancies less. Every human being exercises some influence on the character, happiness and destinies of others, and is accountable for opportunities wasted, and blessings neglected or transformed. This is especially true of women. Every sensible, high-minded, right-hearted woman, be she peeress or peasant--is, or may be, a blessing to many; if not by great deeds or achievements the world calls heroic, by a simple, quiet, straightforward performance of the duties which lie before her, and are therefore given her to do.

As it is the business of man to provide the means of living comfortably, so it is the province of woman to dispose judiciously of those means, and maintain order and harmony in all things. On her due performance of her part rest the comfort and social peace of home; while misery and ruin follow her neglect. Some women, it is true, are placed in an unnatural position by having the burden of supporting the family thrown upon them. They have double duties, and a harder part to sustain; but their toils may be materially lightened by care and method in what they have to do.

So much by way of exordium. We shall now proceed through the various matters appertaining to a house, endeavoring to present a clear chart of the necessary business, pointing out hidden rocks, and showing how these may be avoided, and the vessel sent to float in calm waters. With much labor we have collected information on all subjects that fall within the proper scope of housekeeping; and multifarious as these are, it is our belief that she who consults our index will be sure to find whatever she can wish to know.

> CHAPTER II.

THAT sensible and oft-quoted old lady, Mrs. Glasse, begins one of her recipes thus: "First catch your hare." Following so good an example, we will first take a house and furnish it, before laying down axioms for its management.

Before any steps are taken, the income or pecuniary means of the parties about to commence housekeeping, should be well considered. It is not well to rush into matrimony without due attention to such sublunary matters as dollars and cents; for the notion that when once a couple is married, all will go right, is a foolish one. A young man with an income of four or five hundred dollars, every cent of which has been annually swallowed up by his own expenses, falls in love with a young lady who can sing and play well, speak French and produce marvels in the way of crochet or ornamental work, who loves sentimental poetry and romance, and can trim herself a neat bonnet; but knows little of the realities of life. Having never known what it is to want any thing--she has no idea that any thing can be wanted. The young man feels certain in his own mind that a wife will be an actual saving to him; and makes an eloquent declaration of his affection. The prospect for the future is but slender; for he ignores the fact that he has been accustomed to spend half his income on clothes and amusements, which he does not think of doing without; and she forgets how much she is in the habit of spending on gloves, ribbons, perfumes, et cetera. When they are married--the bridal dress and entertainment not being reckoned among their expenses--they find themselves fettered by a thousand inconveniences, and obliged to deny themselves travelling and many other kinds of recreation; more than that, they discover that the etiquette of this enlightened age, imperiously demands reckless expenditure, when common sense would advise more than usual economy; and without losing the social position they aim to preserve, they can do nothing but submit. What an effect on the success of after-life must be such a beginning!

However, we do not consider it our mission to enter on Quixotic quarrels with the ways of the world. It is, as our young people soon find--

"A very good world to live in,
To lend, to spend, or to give in;
But to beg, or borrow, or get one's own,
'Tis the very worst world that ever was known."

In taking a house, the first matters to


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be considered, are the rent we can afford to give, or the money that can be devoted to its purchase, and the locality that suits us best.

A dwelling in town affords many opportunities for social intercourse, amusement, and the acquisition of general knowledge; a suburban residence offers some advantages in healthiness of location and convenience. The remote country has a distinct class of enjoyments, though want of society often makes time pass slowly. Where locality is not specified, always choose one as open and airy as may be, and where the soil, or at any rate the subsoil, is not clay, where the drainage is good, and there is an ample supply of water, and no neighboring factories giving out noxious gases and poisonous smoke and vapor. Too close a vicinity to a churchyard is likewise to be avoided. Of course, the house must be capable of accommodating the family who are to occupy it, and there should always be a spare room or two which can be used for bed-rooms, or other purposes in case of emergency. There should be closets, cellars, &c., and good ventilation front and back. A fee to a well-qualified surveyor is often well bestowed; for he may detect serious faults in a house which, to an ordinary observer, seems well built and comfortable.

The agreement with the landlord should be clearly understood, and all liabilities as to taxes, local rates, house repairs, with charges for fixtures, &c., inquired into, and definitely arranged, before the agreement is signed.

It will be well for every house to have some shelter at its entrance; a porch or portico, in a style regulated by that of the rest of the building, will be found useful. A hall, vestibule, or entry, is essential, and the size and location of the staircases considerably affect the convenience of the dwelling. The dining-room should be so placed that the way to it from the kitchen is easy, and yet so that the noise or odors do not prove annoying. The general style of the drawing-room should be light and cheerful; that of the library plain and quiet. The bed-chambers should be as lofty and spacious as possible, and so contrived that a thorough draught can be obtained, to change the air completely. Each should have a chimney fireplace. Small closets and recesses are to be avoided as sleeping apartments. The nursery should be near the chamber of the mistress.

Dressing and bath-rooms should be as uniformly attached to bed-rooms as the size of the house and means of the owner will permit; the bath is an indispensable convenience. Every house should be provided with two water-closets at least. In large establishments, a breakfast-room looking eastward and with glass doors opening on a garden or lawn, a billard-room for exercise within doors, a room for hunting and fishing tackle, a gallery for music, paintings, or statuary, a lady's boudoir or sitting-room tastefully ornamented, a school-room, and domestic laboratory, with a conservatory, are convenient additions. A number of rooms for domestic offices are connected with the house, and various cellars, as well as separate buildings, appropriated to many different purposes--which we shall not describe particularly. The kitchen will be examined under another head.

In contriving the mode of warming a house, attention should be paid not merely to economy of fuel, but to the preservation of a salubrious atmosphere. A chimney fireplace or grate is preferable to a stove, which is apt to give the air a close or disagreeable smell, and produce headache and stupor. Count Rumford imagined that the hot iron roasted the dust that settled on it, which dust was composed of all sorts of animal and vegetable matters; others complain of


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the extreme dryness of the air. Stoves of brick or earthenware, used in various parts of Europe, are said to be better than iron; but all close stoves are liable to the objection, that in using them it is difficult to change the air continually, or procure proper ventilation. The same difficulties prevail, to some extent, in warming a house by a furnace, and the dryness of the air is often productive of discomfort. Steam might afford an agreeable and convenient method of warming apartments. Of all the modes usually adopted, the advantage seems to lie with the open fire. The temperature should be steady and not too high: say 60° or 62°. Apartments in our cities are generally kept at a dangerous degree of heat. Bed-rooms should not be warmed, more than to have the "outside chill" taken off.

Ventilation is a very important consideration. The atmospheric air in breathing loses the constituent that sustains life, and must be got rid of, and replaced by air that is fresh and pure. This change of air should be continually going on in our apartments. Windows that open at the top are useful, the vitiated air ascending to the ceiling. The practice of sleeping in rooms not sufficiently ventilated, is utterly destructive to health. It should be remembered also that the vital part of air is exhausted by a burning light. It would be well to have a ventilator in the centre of the ceiling, which can be concealed by ornamental work in plaster; and in the admission of fresh air, care should be taken that it does not come in a direct stream, so as to produce unpleasant draughts.

It is often necessary to fumigate or disinfect the air contaminated by noxious effluvia. Muriatic acid and nitric acid fumes have been employed for this purpose, and chlorine, a most effectual agent in destroying noxious qualities in the air, is generally employed. Chloride of lime and chloride of soda are used as the most convenient preparations. The latter is called Labarraque's Disinfecting Liquid. Vinegar is used in sick rooms, and quick lime, alone or mixed with ashes, in sinks, sewers, &c.

Having taken our house, it generally wants a thorough cleaning and airing. In spring, autumn, and winter, fires should be kept for three or four days, according to the time the house has been empty, and to the repairs it has undergone during that interval; for of course nobody ought to enter a house in the state of dirt and disrepair in which it is usually left by an out-going tenant, or if they do so under the notion that the landlord will set it all to rights after they are in, they will find out their mistake, and repent their confidence.

It sometimes happens that the chief rooms are not papered and painted until the house is let. In such case the in-coming tenant generally has the power of choosing the papers, or panellings, and paint. He will, of course, select such as will best harmonize with the color which the furniture and hangings should have.

We will now suppose the house taken, cleaned thoroughly, and well aired, and will proceed to furnish it. But first we must pause to observe that young people will do well carefully to consider matters before they take upon themselves the troubles and responsibilities of housekeepers. Where their joint savings, or some sum especially bestowed for the purpose by friends or parents, will enable them to make the necessary outlay for furniture, linen, &c., and yet have something left to put by for "a wet day," and the rent and taxes can be afforded by the income of the husband, it is all well and good. But if money must be borrowed, or debts incurred, begin life in the quietest way, rather than with these incumbrances. Take board or apartments


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for a time, until you see your way clear. From $150 to $400 a year will pay for part of a house in a city, and much less in a village. Board can be obtained in respectable houses at four or five dollars a week and upwards in our largest towns. There are some disadvantages in this mode of living. It is customary to say that boarders are victimized; one is sometimes brought into contact with disagreeable individuals, who become enemies if they find they are not received in a sociable or friendly manner; and on the whole, it is wiser to keep house with three or four rooms. There are always respectable families to be found, who will let a set of apartments.

Now to the business of furnishing a house.

> CHAPTER III.

HERE again the unsentimental consideration of dollars and cents obtrudes itself. The limit to which we can go is dependent upon the funds in hand which may be expended without incurring debt or causing inconvenience.

It would be curious to trace the history of furniture in different ages and countries. But we have no space for such a review. The taste has been revived of late years, for pieces of ancient furniture, and the skill of cabinetmakers has been brought into requisition to produce imitations of the antique style, or tasteful restorations, by the putting together of fragments, interesting from singular or historical associations.

Window curtains contribute much to the comfort and elegance of apartments, tempering the light, and excluding the cold air. They may be of various patterns and materials.

The hall, or entry, should be furnished with an umbrella and hat stand, and chairs or hall seats. If there is a closet for hanging up hats, cloaks, &c., it should be near the door. Door scrapers should always be placed at the entrance.

> PICTURES ON THE WALL.

Pictures, if well chosen, add much to the appearance of a room, and impart to it an air of completeness, and a home look, which many people know how to appreciate. To produce this effect, the subjects of the pictures must be such as we can truly sympathize with, something to awaken our admiration, reverence, or love. All the feelings of our nature may be illustrated by pictures. There are some which we seem to make bosom companions of; others have a moral effect, and at times prevent our going astray by their silent monitions. It is, therefore, worth while to take pains and choose good subjects, whether in engravings or paintings, and to frame and hang them suitably when chosen. Gilt frames are most suitable for rather dark paintings, and on a deep colored wall; while prints look well in a frame of composition, oak, rose-wood, or bird's-eye maple, finished with a gilt moulding. Care should be taken to hang them in a proper light, so as best to bring out all the effects of the pictures, and to place them so that the light shall fall from the same side as represented by the painter. In picture galleries and great houses, brass rods are fixed all around the room close to the ceiling, from which the pictures are hung, but in small rooms it is often best not to show the lines or wires by which the pictures hang. This is done by nailing a strong cord across the back, about two inches below the top, and then suspending it from two nails standing out but a little way from the wall. When there are several pictures in a room, the ordinary rule is, to have either the upper or lower edge of the frames in a line, on whichever side they may be hung.

For bed-room furniture, mahogany, maple-wood, and oak, are the best and prettiest; there are also very serviceable, well-polished, stained wood imitations of all these three; and there are, too, very common and trumpery imitations, which turn shabby in a few months, and are generally badly put together, and do no service; two good chairs are worth a dozen of such rubbish.

As a general rule we should advise avoidance of all cheap, showy furnishing establishments: likewise, unless you are wealthy, of all fashionable upholsterers. Patronize good, old-established houses of business.

Never buy second-hand bedsteads, bedding, or hangings, unless you are well convinced that no more than you bargain for is included in the purchase.

Iron and brass bedsteads, which can now be had of every size, form, and price, are far preferable, both as regards health, cleanliness, and lightness, to any others.

It can scarcely be necessary to repeat how injurious to health are very small bed-rooms, and the same rule will apply to curtains which prevent the change of air, compelling us to breathe over again a portion of the air we have expired. The curtains should never enclose the bed. In low chambers, the bed should be near the floor, and the best place for it is at the middle of the side of the room, not touching the wall.

Chintz or dimity are better for bed-furniture than damask, moreen, or any fabric containing wool; they harbor less dust and are less liable to hide vermin.

Three-ply carpets are best adapted for bed-rooms. Never place carpet under a bed, or you provide a resting-place for all the dust and flock which daily falls from the mattresses, and establish a nice hot-bed for fleas. Let the carpet be made in about three pieces, in order that it may be frequently taken up and beaten or shaken, and the floor scrubbed clean.

Soft feather beds cause an undue warmth that weakens the action of the skin, and makes one susceptible to cold. A well stuffed feather bed, or a mattress, should be used. Good mattresses of wool, and wool and horsehair, iron bedsteads, and as little bed-furniture, curtains, &c., as may be, with a light quilt, are the best preventives against rising languid, inert, and unfit in the morning for the duties of the day. The covering should be light. A wide bed affords the luxury Franklin recommends, of moving from side to side, and a bed should have but one occupant.

Bed-room and dressing-room chairs should be light. Couches, tables, dressing-glasses, wash-stands, &c., are necessary articles, and the couches may be made of cheap materials, covered with chintz or brown holland. Bureaus and ward-robes will not be forgotten. Fireguards of painted wire are a security against accidents. Of the smaller articles in use a host might be enumerated; but everyday need will suggest them.

Never crowd a bed-room with furniture; have that which is really useful and requisite, and no more; and in fitting it up, always remember that illness often comes when we least expect it, and take care that your room shall possess such articles as will then be needful for comfort and ease.

A dining-room requires little furniture but that little should be good and handsome, and of mahogany.

About furnishing drawing-rooms we can give no directions, so much depends upon taste. We would only reiterate our warning to beware of showy, veneered, vamped-up furniture, or, when the room has had a fire in it some dozen times, you will be startled occasionally by reports as if small cannon were discharged, and on rising to investigate such alarming noises, you will find, perhaps a crack across one door of the beautiful rosewood


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cabinet, or a gaping chasm in that lovely centre table, or a piece of carved work flown off the card table, showing only pine beneath!

Here, again, a little furniture tastefully arranged is far better than a crowd of articles; besides, in one's course through life, furniture accumulates gradually, and if it is necessary to sell one thing in order to make way for another, that is a very losing business.

We now come to the kitchens, where the wants are multifarious; for here must be accumulated means of feeding, and cleaning, and keeping in order the whole house. Of course we can give no detailed account of what will be required, as all depends upon the extent and style of the household; all we can do, therefore, is to make one or two general remarks on the durability of different wares.

As few copper cooking utensils as possible should be had, and those few should be most thoroughly tinned in the inside, and always carefully cleaned and dried before being put away. We prefer block tin to anything else for saucepans, pots, and kettles generally. Iron does not so quickly or plainly tell any tale of dirt or neglect; cast iron is very brittle, and cannot be repaired when broken; and copper is likely to harbor verdigris. A good double block tin saucepan should always have the cover, the handle, and the back, kept bright as silver; and the top, spout, front, and handle of the kettle, should also be kept bright; for besides that a polished surface maintains heat better than an uneven, blackened one, it looks wonderfully better; and if the smoke is never allowed to gather on these parts, it is easy to keep the utensils as bright as they were at first.

For stewpans, iron tinned on the inside is most useful.

The ancients seem to have used lamps of various forms; an improvement on torches, certainly, but a more simple contrivance than candles, which in the twelfth century and afterwards, came into use throughout Europe. Wax, spermaceti, and tallow, with different kinds of oil for lamps of an improved fashion, are still in use. Spirit gas and camphene are cleanly substitutes, but extremely dangerous. The lighting of apartments by inflammable gas is one of the most useful results of the investigations of modern science. It is said that Murdoch, an engineer, was the first to make this discovery available on an extensive scale. He commenced his experiments in 1792.

Candlesticks for common house or kitchen use should be of tin or brass, and large enough to save grease spots. There is no wear in japan.

Wooden bowls for washing glass and china, and block tin or zinc hand bowls will be found most serviceable.

All utensils for the conveyance of water about a house should be of metal, as water-cans of different sizes, hot-water ewers with covers, shaving mugs, &c., as thereby much breakage will be saved, and these, if bought good at first, will, with ordinary care, last a very long time. The same remark applies to foot-baths. Very pretty toilet sets for the wash-stand are also now made in zinc, and beautifully painted or japanned.

Sarcophagus and other extraordinarily shaped coal-scuttles, are to be avoided as most troublesome and awkward affairs, out of which it is next to impossible to extract coal conveniently.

Soyer gives the following list of kitchen articles for a family of six.

Eight copper stewpans, two larger ones, holding one gallon and a half, and the next one gallon, the others smaller by degrees to one pint; one oval fish-kettle, holding about one gallon and a half; one middle-sized braising-pan; one preserving-pan; one round bowl for beating whites of eggs; two sauté-pans; one omelette-pan; one frying-pan; one bain-marie;


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six saucepans for sauces; one middle-sized tin pie-mould; two tin jelly-moulds; one tin flanc mould for fruit; one freezing-pot, with every requisite; two baking-sheets; one gridiron; one small salamander; one colander-spoon; one bottle-jack; two spits; one dripping-pan; one screen; one sugar-pan; two soup-ladles; eight copper spoons, two of them colanders; two wire baskets; one wire sieve; two hair sieves; twenty-four tartlet-pans; two tammies; one jelly-bag; twelve wooden spoons; two paste-brushes; one pair of scissors; two kitchen knives; six larding-needles; one packing-needle; one box of vegetable-cutters; one box of paste-cutters; one meat-saw; one cutlet chopper; one meat chopper; six meat-hooks, tinned; one rolling-pin; eight kitchen basins; six china pie-dishes; six earthen bowls for soups and gravies; four kitchen table-cloths; eighteen rubbers; twelve fish-napkins; six pudding-cloths; four round towels.

> CHAPTER IV.

WITH regard to all those articles which fall under the general denomination of "plate," we should advise that all imitations be avoided; let those who cannot afford silver be content to use simple metal, which does not pretend to be more than it really is. All the imitations of silver will, even with the utmost care, betray themselves in a very short time, and have a would-be-genteel-if-I-could sort of air, which is ten thousand times more ridiculous than the plainest of all materials; besides, the money they cost would purchase a few real articles, which are always worth their weight in silver, whereas the imitations have only a nominal value, and lose even that as they become discolored and dull.

Metal tea and coffee pots may be had very good, and in handsome patterns, and are far more durable than china, drawing better, and retaining heat longer.

The following is a list of the usual articles in silver required to furnish the table.

Dishes and covers.

Table knives and forks.

Dessert knives and forks.

Table spoons.

Dessert spoons.

Gravy spoons.

Soup ladles.

Sauce ladles.

Salt spoons, with gilt bowls.

Fish slice.

Trays and waiters.

Bread baskets.

Cake baskets.

Decanter stands.

Decanter labels.

Liqueur and bottle stands.

Cruet frames.

Egg frames.

Asparagus tongs.

Cheese scoops.

Knife rests.

Nut crackers.

Grape scissors.

Tea urns.

Coffee urns.

Tea pots.

Coffee filterers.

Sugar basin.

Cream ewers.

Sugar tongs.

Tea spoons.

Toast racks.

Butter coolers.

Snuffer trays.

Snuffers.

Candlesticks.

Cheap cutlery is mistaken economy. Good knives and forks will, with ordinary care, last for years; common ones have no wear in them, and never can be made to cut well.

Crockery, china, and glass, we need say little about, for they may be had at all prices and of all qualities. The moulded or cast glass looks as well as cut glass, if not placed in contrast with it, and wears as long, and costs considerably less. For dishes, pitchers, butter-coolers, &c., we should always use it; decanters, wine-glasses, and tumblers, do not look so well in it.

As regards ornamental china, or glass, or what not, little can be said, these things being so much matters of taste; but it is better to have but one, and that one really handsome and good, than a crowd of cheap, showy trifles; besides, these are things which gradually accumulate, and therefore it is always better to devote the money in hand to necessary articles, and leave the more ornamental ones for after consideration. A good clock for the kitchen, and a handsome one for the drawing-room, are useful and necessary things, especially the former.

In household linen, again, it is false


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economy to buy common or cheap materials. For sheets, linen, cotton, and Swiss twilled calico are used; these substances are now woven wide enough to render a seam unnecessary, and all we have to do is to measure the width of the beds and allow an extra half yard; the ordinary length of a sheet is three yards and a half. The pillow cases must be of the same material as the sheets. Marseilles quilts are too heavy to be beneficial to health. Any industrious housewife may knit very serviceable and pretty counterpanes in squares or shell-shaped pieces, during those periods when she is chatting, or between the lights, or at hours when she would otherwise most probably be doing nothing. It is for such useful purposes as these we value knitting, crochet, &c., for they can be made the means of economy and usefulness, instead of being, as they too often are, employed on useless expensive trifles.

The most durable sort of linen for sheeting is the Russian, German, or Irish fabric, a good stock of which should be laid in to avoid the necessity of frequent or irregular washing.

An inventory of furniture is given by Soyer as follows:--

Twelve pairs of sheets; ten ditto pillow-cases; three dozen napkins; two dozen and a half various-sized table-cloths, including breakfast, dinner, &c.; six servants' table-cloths; three dozen towels; six round towels; three dozen kitchen rubbers; two dozen napkins for fish, vegetables, and fruits; six pudding-cloths; two dozen damask d'oylies; one dozen Berlin wool ditto. I also have occasionally in the wash the cover of the carpet, the anti-macassars, which I have knitted at my leisure, and the netted window curtains. Of glass and china, I have the following; they are counted every month, and the broken ones replaced:--three dozen wine-glasses; two dozen champagne ditto: two dozen claret ditto; three dozen goblets; six water caraffes; six decanters; one liqueur-stand; twelve liqueur-glasses; two glass pitchers; one celery-glass; one trifle-bowl; eight dessert-dishes. China: one full dinner service; one common set for kitchen; one common tea service for kitchen; one good tea service; one breakfast service; one good dessert service.

The following is my list of plate:--three dozen prongs; two ditto table-spoons; one and a half ditto dessert-spoons; one and a half ditto dessert-forks; two ditto tea-spoons; six salt-spoons; one cheese-knife; four butter-knives; one asparagus-tongs; two sugar-tongs; two soup-ladles; four sauce-ladles; two gravy-spoons; two sugar-ladles; two salvers; one bread-basket; four candlesticks; one hot-water dish for haunch of mutton.

Table-cloths, tray-cloths, and dinner napkins will of course come under the category of "linen," and can be obtained at very reasonable prices compared with what they were twenty years since. Towels, too, are included in this list. In the case of chamber towels, again, comes diversity of opinion; some preferring a soft, others a hard, some a rough, and some a smooth towel; damask and diaper are not soft enough for some delicate skins. For our own part we like towels which administer a certain amount of friction to the skin, and all medical men agree that this is requisite to health. For the kitchen, round towels, tea-cloths, and glass-cloths, will be required, as well as dusters, pudding-cloths, knife-cloths, house-cloths, and flannels for cleaning. These will have to be purchased at the same time by young housekeepers newly furnishing, who "have no rags--poor things," and therefore may as well be mentioned here. Old sheets make good glass cloths; old table-cloths make nice soft towels; all


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dresses of cotton, or old dress-linings, will serve for dusters, and old blankets for house-flannels.

There are also needed toilet-covers for chamber tables, and chests of drawers, &c., carpet covers, muslin for chamber window-curtains, muslin for drapery for the toilet-table, coarse sheeting for dusting-sheets to cover the beds or drawing-room furniture when sweeping and cleaning; a yet coarser sheet to lay down in front of the stoves when they are being cleaned; chamois leathers for cleaning the plate, brass, steel, and windows; and bags for the best brooms.

Then we come to brushes, and their name is legion. Oh, this furnishing a house is a serious affair! a carpet-broom, a short-handled one for the stair carpets, a hair-broom for the bed-rooms, and another for the passages and kitchens; feather-brushes, dusting-brushes, stove-brushes, hearth-brushes, shoe-brushes, plate-brushes, paste-brushes, clothes-brushes, a hat-brush, and a table-brush to remove the crumbs from the table-cloth, are all needed; and these should be bought at a good warehouse, and of good quality, if we would have them do us service, and not fall to pieces, or lose their hair, as soon as they are fairly brought into use.

There are many items yet unmentioned, but it will not be requisite for us to waste our time, or that of our readers, by enumerating them all seriatim; we will therefore proceed to other matters.

> CHAPTER V

SUPPOSING now that we have our house, and it is furnished, the next thing to determine is how many servants can be afforded. Must we be content with one, a "general house-servant;" or can we afford a cook and housemaid, or even aspire to the gentility of a man-servant or a butler?

The expenses must be determined by the sum which can, without incurring debts or living too closely up to one's income, be devoted to "housekeeping," under which head we include rent, taxes, wages, and every outlay appertaining to the house. Now, in reckoning the expenses of a servant, the question of wages is not the only one to be considered; there is the board and washing; and $100, exclusive of wages, is the lowest at which the keep of each servant can be estimated.

In hiring servants always be particular in inquiring their character, and, if possible, learn something of the people with whom they have lived; let all stipulations as to wages, extras, holidays, and such matters, be clearly specified and rightly understood.

The greatest trouble in housekeeping in this country, is the difficulty of procuring and retaining good servants. In the Southern States this difficulty is not realized; their servants having been trained for the labor allotted to them, and being contented and happy in their condition without aspirations after change. But elsewhere, both in the city and country, the case is different. Men and women born in America look upon service as degrading to them, and will prefer any hardship or privation to engaging in it as a business. Those who do so for a time, are usually tormented with jealous fears that their dignity will be infringed on, or are found neither qualified nor trustworthy. Housekeepers are mainly dependent on the Irish and German emigrants, who as a rule are utterly ignorant of household service, and have to be taught everything; often receiving wages for months before they begin to make themselves useful. By the time they can be trusted to do the work, they are corrupted by intercourse with other servants,


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or persons who prompt them to make exactions on your time for visiting their numerous relatives from the old country, as well as to fill your kitchen with strangers, till the annoyance becomes intolerable. A complaint on this score from the employers is followed by an outbreak of insolence, and the abrupt departure of the servant you have taken such pains to teach;--and so unusual is it to find one who knows any thing--that she will readily get another place, perhaps with one of your neighbors who has envied you her possession.

An English lady gave this account of the progress of a favorite--"The first year she was a good servant; the second an indulgent mistress; the third an intolerable tyrant."

A good maxim is to select servants not younger than thirty; they are, as a rule, less fond of change, and better satisfied when really comfortable. But change is the order of things in the United States.

Respecting servants, there are a few things which cannot be too strongly urged; one is, never to retain a cook who is not fond of her occupation; for unless she take pleasure in her art, she cannot be depended upon for accuracy in the preparation of dishes with which she is well acquainted, and will not easily be induced to acquire any thing new. She also must possess a natural regard for cleanliness, or all the pains in the world will never render her cleanly: where dirty habits are manifested, dismissal should follow, for in almost every instance they will be found incurable. Another point of main importance is her temper; for if that be not good, she will be disinclined to receive instructions, and, if found fault with, may, out of pique, spoil a dinner; whereas a good-humored, intelligent servant, when made acquainted with the habits of the house, and equal to her common duties, will hardly fail of success when called upon by her mistress to try any of those receipts which she has not already used.

The low character of servants heard of at common intelligence offices has caused such places to be held in small esteem; for their recommendations can in no case be depended on. There are institutions in Great Britain which have for their object the security of housekeepers from the evils of disreputable and dishonest inmates. The officials are so minute in their inquiries into character, as to preclude the necessity of those who hire from their office taking any trouble themselves in the business. Servants whose characters will not bear the strictest investigation will scarcely apply to such institutions. They are sorely needed in this country.

It may be curious to see the list of servants which form the household of a British nobleman of high rank, or a wealthy citizen, who keeps from twenty to thirty domestics.

> Women.

Housekeeper.

A lady's maid for each grown lady of the family.

Cook.

Upper housemaid.

Laundry maid.

Under housemaid.

Under laundry maid.

Still room maid.

Kitchen maid.

Scullion.

(To this establishment that of the nursery is added.)

> Men.

House steward.

Groom of the chamber.

Valet to each gentleman in the family.

Man cook.

Butler.

Gentleman's footman.

Lady's footman.

Under butler.

Gentleman's coachman.

Lady's coachman.

Couriers. Outriders.

Grooms, in number according to the stud.

Under servants. Errand boys.

Steward's boy.

In the United States so many servants are rarely kept in one family, even among millionnaires, or in the Southern States;


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where, however, it is customary for each member of the family to have a separate attendant. An extensive establishment would perhaps number a coachman, groom, porter, footman, gardener, butler, and perhaps a valet and French cook; the female servants consisting of a housekeeper, cook, scullion, lady's maid, chambermaid, laundrymaid, nurse, and one or more maids-of-all-work. Indeed the most wealthy families keep less than half this number; and the average not more than three women and one man-servant. Those of slender income are content with one for "general house-work."

In all large establishments in England the men and women servants, in the intervals of their employments, are never allowed to sit in the same room, but have their separate places of resort, assembling together only at dinner and supper. It is the duty of the steward and housekeeper to see this regulation observed.

In servants generally we look for the essential qualities of integrity, sobriety, cleanliness, and general propriety in manner, with knowledge of their duties in the departments they profess to understand. A glance at some reprehensible practices among them may be useful, as every instance of pilfering and trickery accumulates odium on the whole class. One of the chief anxieties of housekeeping is the apprehension of the dishonesty of those who are under our roof and receiving bread from our hands; and suspicion, for which there is often just cause, injures both the employer and the employed. Cooks have been found to dispose of provisions in other ways than for the use of the family they serve. Presents are sometimes demanded by servants from the trades-people dealt with by the master. The so-called "honor," which prevents a servant from exposing the frauds and misconduct going on among others, is but another name for deception and dishonesty. The servant who knows of frauds and is silent, becomes an accomplice.

Though it is very disagreeable to suspect any one's honesty, it is yet prudent to weigh meat, sugar, &c., when brought in, and to compare the weight with the charge. Scales should be placed in the kitchen, near the door used by the tradespeople. The knowledge of such things as weights and scales being in use, will operate as a check to any petty fraud which might otherwise be contemplated.

In large establishments abroad the servants have sometimes an allowance of food, or are kept on board wages. The former system prevails on plantations at the South, among field laborers only; the servants in families, as in the Northern States, taking their meals immediately after, and on the remains of the family meals.

The perquisites of servants are, in many cases, so many encroachments on the property of their employers, who tacitly allow, while they in principle condemn the practice. There is no doubt that perquisites tend to corrupt the morals of domestics, placing their own interests in opposition to those of others, and offering temptation against which their integrity is not always proof. Among these objectionable customs, one that particularly calls for attention as an odious kind of taxation, is the practice of servants receiving vails, or presents in money, from visitors. It is a species of bribery for services which ought to be performed without it, and tends to make servants less attentive to those who cannot give them great pecuniary rewards. This custom has grown into disuse in England, and most highly respectable families make it a condition in hiring their servants, that they shall accept no such gifts, but when they are offered


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shall inform the visitor that it is contrary to the rule of the house to take them. It was formerly so usual in hotels in the United States for the attendants to expect gifts from the guests, that one could not obtain any service without it. I knew a party of travellers visiting Niagara, to leave the dining-room, unable to obtain any thing to eat, the waiters not attending to them. One who had been longer in the house, informed them they would not be served unless each person gave fifty cents to one of the waiters--who, in fact, were paid no wages, but allowed to extract all they could from travellers! This is downright swindling on the part of hotel proprietors, and no respectable landlord now permits such impositions. In all the first-class hotels in our cities, persons should be particularly requested to give no fees to servants. The charges per day at hotels certainly ought to cover ordinary attendance; extra services may be paid for. As some country people, and Southerners, when they travel, continue to give gratuities to servants, proprietors of public houses ought to be the more resolute in abolishing a practice tending to produce murmuring, discontent, and neglect of duties among their domestics. The caution should be inserted among the printed rules of the establishment, and the servants discharged who is known to receive any thing in this way.

Still more onerous and odious is the custom that inflicts a tax upon visitors in private families, in violation of the sacred obligations of hospitality. Such a burden is this felt to be, that many are compelled to refuse invitations to the houses of their friends on account of it. A Southern lady informed us that the expense of a short visit to one of her neighbors was made, by this necessity, to exceed what she would have paid at the highest rate of hotel fare. We found this the case on spending a day or so on a Virginia plantation at the invitation of the owner; each servant on the premises expecting gratuities. They learn, of course, to estimate the worth or standing of a guest by the amount bestowed on them, and frequently to treat with insolence or contempt those who cannot give so much. A "help" in New Jersey, was highly indignant at receiving a present of a mousseline de laine dress instead of a silk one, and declared she would not have it made up. We knew of another lady who emptied her purse to give five dollars each to several flaunting girls in the house where she was staying; though she was obliged to deny herself many things for want of the money. "If you do not give them something very elegant, they will make fun of you; nothing simple will please them;" said another lady when consulted on the subject. What a motive for liberality!

There are very few who have moral courage enough to be independent in such things, even though their charities have to be stinted in consequence; especially when it is known that the mistress frequently asks her servants what they received from her guests, and even draws conclusions founded on their information! So at the risk of inconvenience or impoverishment, the tax must be paid; though as a rule it is always paid with with secret dissatisfaction. What an insult to the name of hospitality is this!

The prevailing motive for this kind of liberality is not the charity which delighteth in giving--but a selfish fear of being thought penurious by one's friends, or of being ridiculed by saucy servants. We do not remember a single instance in which the custom,considered imperative, when the custom, considered imperative, when mentioned at all, has not been mentioned with condemnation. It should be utterly and for ever abolished. The mistress, in hiring a domestic, should make known her invariable rule that such


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things are not to be allowed, and should let it be known among all her friends.

We do not object to the largest kind of liberality in giving. The poor and needy have claims that meet us at every turn; and the most rigid self-denial to satisfy their just demands, is commendable. It is an excellent rule--"My superfluity must give way to my neighbor's convenience; my convenience to his necessity; my necessity to his destitution." In instances where our regard is attracted by a kind and faithful domestic in a friend's family, or where circumstances would render a gift peculiarly acceptable, it is pleasant to give and right to receive. We object to the system which makes present-giving compulsory without regard to the feelings or means of the donor, or the necessities of the receiver. And what well-bred lady who invites her friends for the pleasure of their society, would willingly have them feel under the necessity of putting themselves to inconvenience to give large fees to her servants, already well paid for the trifling services they render?

The custom which we have understood is actually prevalent in some places, of visitors "making up in presents" the expense incurred by their friends in hospitably entertaining them,--is certainly "better honored in the breach than the observance." What hospitality can there be, when an equivalent is offered and received? It would be more fair and open to make the bargain regularly in dollars and cents. The indirect exaction of compensation in this way, frequently beyond what could reasonably be charged, appears to us to be speculation without the s. Yet we occasionally hear of this as expected from visitors. A lady in Illinois once said to her guest: "I know you will want to make me some nice present before you go away; I will tell you what I would like: &c." A lady from the country who staid a fortnight with a city friend, left money when she went away to purchase "some sort of a present." All we have to say of this and every other practice tending to make gifts (which should be free as the love that ought alone to prompt them) in the slightest degree compulsory, is, that it is wrong, and entirely subversive of true friendship.

To return to our subject. It is in vain that societies are formed for the encouragement of faithful domestics, by giving premiums and high testimonials to those who serve a reasonable time in the same family. These last are not valued, where a choice of places can be had without them, and the roving disposition is fostered by the notion of independence and the certainty of being well paid for doing as one pleases.

The only protection to housekeepers from this endless source of discomfort, is to be found in correcting the mistaken notion among American girls that a place in domestic service is less honorable than the severer toils of seamstresses, binders, shopkeepers, or milliners' workwomen. If they could be persuaded, instead of wasting away their lives in health-destroying needlework, miserably paid for by speculators in female servitude,--to engage in the active and varied duties of domestics, secure of a good home and abundant wages--a new era would commence for American housewives.

Something might be done towards this end by regulating the hours devoted to household employments, in such a way as to leave a portion of the day for the girl's own time, which she is at liberty to employ as she pleases; and by encouraging her to use it in the acquirement of useful knowledge. "It requires a refined mind to dust properly;" and the cultivation of intellect will not be thrown away in any department. Let the humiliation of servitude be thus taken away, and persons who have seen better days will engage in the occupation.


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We would recommend the establishment of an Association in our large cities--to find suitable places for persons of a respectable class, stipulate for suitable privileges, and persuade them to this easy mode of earning a livelihood. The gratitude of the community would be due to such an institution.

> CHAPTER VI.

As a country cannot be governed without laws, neither can a household; and the mistress should be as absolute in her own house as a sovereign in her dominions. Order and regularity are the key-stones to comfort, and our housewife must carefully arrange and digest her scheme of government in the first place, and be always alive to any modifications which emergencies, or prudence, or circumstances, may call for. And she must understand what she is about, or her scheme will be worthless; she must be able to teach, nay, to demonstrate upon occasions; she must be regular in her own habits if she would have those about her regular, neat in all that concerns herself, attentive to the details of housekeeping, economical, just, active, and considerate. She must neither hold the reins of government loosely and negligently, nor too sternly, but must quietly exercise a general and regular surveillance over every part of her house and household; and this can be done without tyranny, without vexatious interference, or exhibitions of temper. Let the servants once feel that this is her habit, and they will act accordingly; and if the place is good, conduct themselves so as to endeavor to please and keep it. And it is the interest, as well as duty, of every mistress, to make her servants comfortable; to see that they have a sufficiency of good food, that they are well lodged; that they have time to mend and wash their own clothes, nay, that they know how to do so, and do it.

"Do not send your clothes home to your mother to wash and mend," said a friend of ours to a new servant; "you will have plenty of time to arrange them yourself."

"Please, mum, I don't know how!" replied the girl.

"Well, Mary, you shall be taught, then, for it is time you did know how!"

"But please, mum, I don't want to learn!" said the girl; and learn she would not, for the foolish indulgence which leads mothers to spare their children all occupations they do not like, is as prevalent among the poorer as among other classes.

To return: a mistress need never forget herself, nor weaken her authority, nor show any false indulgence; but in numerous ways she will have the opportunity of endeavoring to guide, to advise, and to benefit those dependent upon her; but she must be patient, if she would really do good. She must remember what may have been the early education, the trials and temptations, the experiences of those girls, and must not expect too much from them. As we have before said, she must hold the reins of government with a firm hand; she must not overlook neglect of duties, irregularities of conduct, want of order or cleanliness, or inattention to her commands; but she can notice these things quietly, without loss of temper, and when alone with the offender; and she can also notice and praise neatness, attention, obedience, and such like, and not accept the good as mere matters of course, and only mark the evil. She should likewise endeavor to induce her servant, by example and precept, to be regular in attendance on religious worship, and make Sunday to them in some degree a day of rest, instead of one of extra cooking and


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work, and should have a supply of those excellent little works to lend them, which are published by the religious societies. While she inculcates economy in things relating to herself, she should try to induce them to save; to put by regularly a certain portion of their wages, and not be extravagant in clothes, but make and mend their things properly.

There is little saved by giving paltry wages; a useful servant will not accept them, and those who do, cannot clothe themselves respectably, and will too often eke out their means by peculation. It is well to begin with moderate wages, and promise an annual increase, which promise both induces a wish to please, and takes away one great excuse for leaving, viz., a desire of "bettering herself." Even in the present "degenerate age," attached servants are to be found, and may be created. We are all more or less human, and human affections and home ties act upon us; we learn to love those who are kind, courteous, and considerate; we value the notice and regard of our superiors, and we take a certain pride in deserving their good opinion. The fault lies in that antagonism of classes, that want of understanding each other, that forgetfulness that all are fellow-creatures, that tendency to regard each other as mutual enemies to be conquered or circumvented.

But we will pass to another topic. The amount of the income will determine what sum can be allowed per annum for housekeeping; for besides, there will be clothing expenses to be provided for, sundries of various kinds, expenses of illness, on which we must all reckon, and there ought to be a reserve fund regularly laid by to provide for any unforeseen emergency, or form the "nest egg" of a provision for a rising family. Well, suppose the sum determined! the next question is, how to apportion it so as to combine economy with comfort, and secure a regular and uniform style of living; not luxuries to-day and parsimony to-morrow. Now, how can our young housekeeper do this, if she knows little or nothing of the prices of provisions; if she scarcely remembers when things are in season and may be purchased at a reasonable rate, and when they are actual extravagances; if she has no idea what quantity of this or that ought to be consumed, by a family of a certain size, per week or per month; and, above all, if she has little aptitude for domestic management, and considerable contempt for all such vulgar details? Few who have read that truthful sketch of Dickens, the "child-wife," will forget the pretty helplessness of Dora; but, although this reads well in a novel, very few such girls, and there are many of them, will meet with husbands as indulgent; for men like to see their home well ordered, and to feel the comforts of good management. Every girl, or almost every girl, looks upon marriage as the great aim and end of her existence; but unfortunately, she regards it, as it is treated in novels, as the concluding chapter, the entrance to that "and-lived-happily-ever-after" state of bliss which we read of in fairy tales. And certainly it is the entrance to a new life, though not one so rose-colored as she dreamed; it takes her from the home where she has been nurtured, cared for, provided for, perhaps petted and indulged, and places her where she will have to be the presiding intelligence; where all will look to her for guidance and instruction; where her happiness and comfort, and that of her husband, will depend upon how she is qualified to fulfil the duties she has undertaken. Mothers, wishing to have your daughters well married, how have you prepared them for the duties you well know they will have to perform? Perhaps you were domestically educated, for our grandmothers were more careful


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in their generation, and thought it no degradation to be good housewives! Perhaps you have had to fight your way through a host of painful lessons, of annoyances, losses, and domestic worries. Do you never look back upon that miserable time, and feel anxious to spare your children a similar probation? Life, even at its best, has enough of painful experiences, without our doubling them by neglecting to teach each individual, in proper time, the things she will be expected to know when she reaches woman's estate.

Every housekeeper should keep a strict account of all her expenditures; should see that each bill is receipted when paid; should file all receipts, and keep them for a year at least--we should rather say two or three. All housekeeping bills should be paid every week, for it is easier to pay small sums than large ones; and besides, the correctness of the bills can then be ascertained. The mistress should look over each one herself, and thus she will detect, and can check, any inaccuracy on the part of the tradesmen, or extravagance on the part of her servants. Should she be her own housekeeper, let her deal regularly with respectable tradesmen, for they will rarely risk losing a good customer by sending bad goods. Bargain-hunting is always perilous, even to good judges. Cheap tea, coffee, sugar, &c., are all adulterated; cheap vegetables and fruit are generally stale; cheap meat is that which has been sent ready killed to the market, and therefore is by no means as fresh as might be wished; and cheap poultry and fish are to be regarded with very great suspicion.

Those who have store-closets will find their advantage in purchasing some things wholesale. Candles should be bought in the latter part of summer, when they are usually cheaper, and a store laid in, for they improve by keeping. So does soap. Coal, too, should be ordered in July or August, and if there is cellarage, a stock for the winter laid in. Many groceries may be purchased in quantities at considerable saving. The same remark applies to bacon, butter, and cheese; but unless there are good dry storerooms, these latter cannot be kept. It is useless to make pickles or preserves unless the house is dry--in damp localities these things mildew and spoil; nor are we sure that in small families it is economical to make them at all, they can be bought so reasonably. All stores should be kept by the mistress, and given out as required.

All good homekeepers will provide themselves with weights and scales, and thus be prepared to check the quantities of stores sent them by their tradespeople, who are as liable to make errors in weighing as in casting their bills. We cannot too particularly impress this upon the attention of our readers, as an essential means of protecting themselves against errors in weight, whether arising from accident or design. Many heads of families are exceedingly particular about the price of their purchases, who are utterly regardless whether or not they have the weight they paid for. Tradesmen are aware of this trust reposed in them, and too often take advantage of it. Unlike the symbol of Justice, who, as she holds the scales in her hands, is blind to all partialities, some tradesmen (some especially amongst the class who are purveyors to the poor) are too open-eyed to see that they descend in their own favor.

In the realm which our housewife is to govern, order, cleanliness, punctuality, and economy must be the fundamental principles which, by precept and practice, she endeavors to enforce. It matters little whether her subjects are limited to a single maid-of-all-work, or general


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[Illustration: An illustration of a work table with a span that is with few needles stick on it.]

servant, as it is now the fashion to call this domestic, or whether she reign over two, three, or more "helps," still the principle must be the same; a certain routine of daily and weekly duties must be laid down, and it lies with the mistress to see that not only these are performed properly, but that all incidental matters are likewise attended to. However wealthy a family may be, they are not willing that their houses and furniture should be injured by neglect or mismanagement. Money can enable a man to hire more domestics, but it cannot provide that these persons shall be cleanly, diligent, trustworthy, and painstaking; it cannot secure him from the consequences of their ignorance, their carelessness, their extravagance. Nothing but the supervision of the mistress, or a good housekeeper, can do this. If, then, a rich man, who can pay the best wages, and hire the most experienced servants, finds still that he lacks something, how much more will one of moderate income or of limited means suffer, should he not find in his wife a housewife?

What I am now about to say, some of my readers may think perhaps out of place; nevertheless I shall say it. A woman cannot really do her duty as a wife, mother, or mistress of a family, unless she is fully sensible of the importance of health, and gives to all sanitary measures their due attention. With loss of health come diminished powers of usefulness. Languor and delicacy in a wife may call forth the sympathies, but do not increase the comforts or happiness of a professional or business man; neither do they render a woman more inclined for, or equal to, the performance of her part in domestic life. And too many of our young girls render themselves languid, feeble, and delicate, by inattention to the commonest requirements of human nature. The crying evil of small towns is usually the want of baths attached to houses, and the small size of bed-rooms; now these are in general accepted as things which must be endured, and little or no attempt is made to palliate them. All medical men, however, agree that plentiful ablutions of the body with cold or tepid water, and a good supply of fresh air in every sleeping and sitting-room, do more to preserve health than all the drugs in the pharmacopœia. And next to these come early rising, avoidance of late hours and crowded assemblies, regular exercise in the open air, attention to diet, and abstinence from pernicious viands, as pastry, sweetmeats, rich gravies, unripe fruit, &c. Pork, veal, and various kinds of vegetables can only be eaten sparingly and occasionally by some persons. Spirits should only be used medicinally, that is to say, at times when common sense tells us they might be of benefit. To take them habitually is equivalent to slow poison.

Besides the benefit a woman derives in


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her health and person from attention to all matters relative to personal care, she will gain another in the effect of her example upon her dependents; for we are all, to a certain extent, creatures of imitation and prone to follow example, be it good or bad. Servants who see before them one who consistently practises the virtues of economy, regularity, personal cleanliness, and general neatness, will never run diametrically counter to all this, but will in some degree shape their conduct accordingly, while all the precepts in the world, without practice, will but go in at one ear and out at the other.

Where only one or two servants are kept, the mistress will do well not to leave her chamber before she has opened her windows, and laid the bed-clothes back over two chairs so as to insure the sheets and blankets, heated by contact with the body all night, being well aired and cooled. No bed should be made, or night-dress folded up, until it has been aired, and suffered thoroughly to cool for at least two hours. Nurseries should be aired while the children are at breakfast, and while they are taking their morning walk. Dining and drawing-rooms require a current of fresh air passed through them at least once every day, to dislodge all the stale atmosphere tainted by the smell of food, flowers, &c., and by having been inhaled by those using the rooms. Many of our readers have doubtless been struck, on entering some houses, by the close, faint, unwholesome smell they, coming from the fresh air, at once perceive. Those who dwell in it habitually are not conscious of it. They dread the chill of fresh air, or the dust it will bring with it into their rooms; and therefore shut it carefully out, and cherish in its stead a species of slow poison--a heavy atmosphere loaded with all sorts of pernicious gases.

Light, too, is another forbidden luxury in some houses. Heavy Venetian blinds jealously protect the delicate hues of the curtains and carpets from its influence, and the inmates consequently fade instead of their upholstery; for a human being can no more do without light than can a flower, and we only need place this latter in a cellar for a few days, and we shall see how it will look. It must not, however, be supposed that we would recklessly suffer the noonday sun to shine on our damask curtains or tapestried carpets, or that we should open our windows when rain, hail, or snow beat full upon them; all we wish to do is, to advise such a use of the choicest gifts of Providence, as health requires and common sense would dictate.

Nor is it only with a view to exercising a salutary influence upon her domestics and strengthening herself, that we would counsel our housewife to pay strict attention to all matters of sanitary importance. A female writer of some celebrity has said, "If before marriage, a woman has been deluded into the notion that a multiplicity of small ailments invested her character with an interesting kind of delicacy, the sooner she becomes well after marriage, the better for herself and all around her."

Now we do not intend to assert that there are not many men who are unwearied in their tenderness in time of illness; but this we must say, that there are thousands more who "vote sickness a bore;" who have little sympathy with, little tolerance for it; who married to have a cheerful companion, not a drooping, languid invalid, to come home to; and who soon begin to seek elsewhere that companionship and cheerfulness they have failed to find at home. And alas! when a man's love has once been dimmed, or alienated from his wife, it never wholly recovers its lost lustre, but remains a mere mechanical matter of duty or honor, and too often not even


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that. Matrimony may bind a man to his wife legally, but herself only can retain her empire over his heart; and to do this, she will need even more than her former charms and attractions and fascinations, besides a vast variety of other attributes which her new position will require of her.

Women little dream what they peril when, after marriage, they neglect the accomplishments, the tasteful dress and adornment, the charming coquetterie of manner, which enthralled the lover. They not only risk their happiness, for it depends on him, but they neglect what ought to be their highest ambition, that of proving how much dearer is the wife than the mistress, and of rendering his home a refuge from cares, a scene of tranquil happiness, of social enjoyment, and of real comfort. Milton is not uttering a merely poetical exclamation, but a great truth, when he says-- "For nothing lovelier can be found
In woman than to study household good,
And good works in her husband to promote;" for a woman who is true to herself will inevitably be the better angel of her husband. Contact with her true heart, her gentle pursuance of all her duties, and with her cheerful, rational, and earnest spirit, will restore the tone of his mind, defiled, saddened, rendered morbid, it may be, by contact with the outer world and all its chicanery, its worry and its debasing influences. Wisely are all things ordered, if we would not, by our follies, our impatience and self-seeking, derange them. Beautiful is the mission of woman, if she would but see it in all its holiness and brightness.

Those who have a home which they can make happy, will not sigh for contact with the outer world, to be permitted to wrestle and contend among its fierce trials and the fiercer spirits that struggle there for daily bread; or despise the peaceful path of domestic duty, which, although it has its trials, is yet in a great degree sheltered; or reject the gentle ties of wife, mother, sister, to study some learned profession, and rush into those haunts and paths already too crowded with the sterner sex. Such must be the lot, nevertheless, of many women, whom necessitous circumstances have forced into an unnatural position.

Our "model housewife" believes with us that we should endeavor a "Well ordered home, man's best delight, to make:
And by submissive wisdom, modest skill,
With every gentle, care-eluding art,
To raise the virtues, animate the bliss.
And sweeten all the toils of human life;
This is true female dignity and praise." So turn we now again to more practical matters.

There are few things more perplexing at first to young housewives than the momentous question of dinner. A social dinner party, and a quiet family dinner, require equal consideration. We once heard of an old bachelor who, to save himself the daily trouble of stating what he would have for dinner, drew up a programme of dinners for every day in the year, and handed it over to his housekeeper; and a lady has lately published a pamphlet, entitled, "What shall we have for dinner, in order to save idle folks the trouble of thinking."

Now, a good cookery book, a short walk round the region where the marketing is done, and a knowledge of family likes and dislikes, will generally enable even a novice to arrange this important matter, at least so far as the ordering goes, the cooking being another consideration. Joints should always, when weather permits, be purchased fresh, and then hung as long as is deemed requisite to fit them for eating. A knowledge of the sauces and condiments appropriate to every dish, is a subject well worth attention. The cooking of vegetables is an


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important point, and one in which we may derive much useful instruction from the French. Vegetables cannot be too fresh; in large towns we can form no idea how little we know of the real flavor and delicacy of green vegetables, accustomed as we are to have them at least a day after they are cut.

Fish should be chosen by touch and look. If it feels flabby, and looks pale about the gills, and dull about the eyes, it is to be avoided; firmness of body, brightness and fulness of eyes, and ruddiness of the gills, are signs of freshness. Crabs and lobsters must be selected by weight, not size, and the olfactory organs employed to test their sweetness.

We have already spoken of the desirableness of dealing regularly with respectable people, but no rule is without its exception; and those who are pretty good judges of articles of provision, may often obtain some variety by looking about them. Practice and habitual attention and observation, and the wholesome annoyance of one or two blunders, will soon give experience.

We would advise that our housewife should see occasionally that all the cooking utensils are kept clean; that there is no waste or extravagance, that the ends of loaves, spare bits of cut bread, bones of meat, cold vegetables, &c., are not recklessly thrown about. There are in every neighborhood only too many poor to be found, who will most gratefully receive the scraps from the richer man's table; and a little inquiry will always find some family on whom such odds and ends may well be bestowed. The tea-leaves should be regularly put by in some vessel, to be used in sweeping.

Perhaps there are few things in which the respectability of a man is more immediately felt, than the style of dinner to which he may accidentally bring home a visitor. Every one ought to live according to his circumstances, and the meal of the tradesman ought not to emulate the entertainments of the higher classes; but if merely two or three dishes be well served, with the proper accompaniments, the table-linen clean, the small sideboard neatly laid, and all that is necessary be at hand, the expectation of both the husband and friend will be gratified, because no interruption of the domestic arrangements will disturb their social intercourse.

Hence the direction of a table is no inconsiderable branch of a lady's concern, as it involves judgment in expenditure, respectability of appearance, and the comfort of her husband, as well as of those who partake of their hospitality. Inattention to it is always inexcusable, and should be avoided for the lady's own sake, as it occasions a disagreeable degree of bustle and evident annoyance to herself, which is never observable in a well-regulated establishment. In doing the honors of her table, the mode of carving is also of importance, and will be treated of in a future chapter.

The mode of covering the table differs in taste. It is not the multiplicity of things, but the choice, the dressing, and the neat, pleasing look of the whole, which give respectability to her who presides. The table should be furnished with more than the necessary quantity of plate, or plated ware, and glass, to afford a certain appearance of elegance; and if accompanied by a clean cloth and a neatly dressed attendant, it will show that the habits of the family are those of gentility. For a small party, or a tête-à-tête, a dumb waiter is a convenient contrivance, as it partly saves the attendance of servants. The cruets should be looked to and filled every day an hour before dinner; and much trouble and irregularity are saved when there is company, if servants are accustomed to prepare the table and sideboard in similar order daily. Too many or too few dishes are extremes


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not uncommon: the former encumbering the dinner with a superfluity which partakes of vulgarity, whilst the latter has the appearance of poverty or penuriousness.

[Illustration: An illustration of a basket that looks like a boat from the side view.]

Servants should always be accustomed to lay the cloth and serve dinner as neatly when the family is alone as when company is expected; they should likewise be taught to bring up and place on the table or sideboard everything likely to be required during the meal, and not have to leave the room repeatedly on trifling errands. The mistress should glance around to see that all is there; and if she perceives omissions, mention them before dinner commences. Servants should also be taught to wait at table without bustle or noise; to remove plates, &c., without rattling them; to open and close the doors gently; to lift covers from dishes so as not to let the drops of condensed steam fall on the table or those seated at it. If these things are ordinarily insisted upon, the mistress of the house will not, when she gives a dinner party, sit on thorns, trembling lest some gaucherie be committed.

Those who would give dinner parties, must, generally speaking, if their ménage is small, hire a professed cook. A small, well cooked, well chosen dinner, is far preferable to a table crowded with dishes. Symmetrical arrangement of the dinner table, too, is a powerful adjunct. The silver should be bright, the glass sparkling, the table-linen pure and snowy, the room well lighted, of comfortable temperature, and well ventilated. The pleasure of eating a good dinner is greatly enhanced when comfort is studied, and taste gratified.

[Illustration: A large vegetable dish with a lid.]

The wines, if you give any, should be good; it is better to give only one or two kinds, and let those be good, even though they be only old-fashioned port and sherry, than to aim at greater things, and set before the guest those "cheap and nasty" imitations of other vintages.

[Illustration: A large two tiered serving dish with a lid.]

Choose the company and arrange them as carefully as the dishes. Ill assorted guests are difficult to please, while persons who assimilate find additional zest in their social enjoyment.

[Illustration: An illustration of a pan with with four legs.]

The dessert should be well selected, and more choice than plentiful. By choice, do not let us be understood to mean extravagant, consisting of fruits not yet in season nor having their proper flavor, or of preserved fruits, or fancy confectionery. All these are prejudicial to health, and we cannot understand why people who dine out should be tempted to eat indigestible things; why what ought to be a means of social enjoyment, should be made a matter of form, ostentation, and discomfort. Let the dessert consist of fine specimens of the fruits in season, backed in winter by a few dried fruits and biscuits.

[Illustration: A tall, three legged, ornate plate warmer.]

[Illustration: A large oblong baskt with a tall handle.]

[Illustration: A circular dish with steep sides and a decorated rims.]

Soyer's housewife thus describes her dinner:--The first thing to be looked to is the lights; these ought to be so placed as not to intercept the view of any person at the table, but at the same time they ought to be enough to show everything off to advantage. I prefer removing some of the lights from the table to the side-board when the cloth is removed, as the light after dinner ought to be more subdued. In laying the cloth, we place it over the baize and remove it after dinner, as Mr. B. says he likes to see the mahogany; for when he asks a city friend to come and put his feet under his mahogany, it looks rather foolish if he never sees it. I have, as you know, my table rather wide, that is, six feet, and I generally place a vase of flowers in the centre, as I think their freshness and odor add greatly to the appearance of the table, and admit a flanc on each side. We prefer the old English plan of taking the top and bottom of the table, instead of me and Mr. B. together at the side.

[Illustration: A bell shaped dish cover with handle.]

"The cloth being laid with its proper side uppermost, I order a napkin, two knives, two prongs, two tablespoons, and two wineglasses to be placed for each person, a saltcellar between every other; that being a condiment which every one uses, though often wrongly; the cruet-frames and other requisites are kept on the sideboards. I then have the fish and soup served together; the potatoes and sauce on the sideboard; I serving the soup, and Mr. B. the fish; and often a little dish of fried fish, such as smelts, &c., to remove the soups. This gives me an opportunity of seeing that my guests are properly attended to, and also leisure to take wine with any gentleman who challenges me. During the time this course has been progressing, the cook has had time to dish up the removes nice and hot, and get all up close to the door, as I like as little time as possible to intervene in changing the dishes; and these consist generally of variously dressed chickens, which I have before me, as this gives an opportunity for the gentleman on my right to display his gallantry; Mr. B., who is a capital carver, either has a saddle or a haunch of mutton, or a quarter of lamb before him, the rest of the dishes consisting of a tongue and entrées. I select those most easy to carve, and also easy for the cook to prepare. This is a period of dinner where a great deal depends upon the attendants; they should know almost by the look what this lady or that gentleman requires, and what kind of vegetables to hand them; a first-rate butler should be able to judge by the physiognomy to whom he should offer mint sauce with the lamb, and who prefers cayenne; on their attention and hot plates depends the success of the substantial part of the dinner.

"As soon as I see that all are served, and words are few in consequence of the organ which utters them being employed in another way, I give a look to the two servants which they understand, and immediately two reports are heard--they are from two bottles of champagne, opened at the same time by the attendants, who have each a salver with six glasses on it; this takes but a short time to serve, and prepares the palate for the entrées, which generally get praised; indeed, my cook would think something was wrong if two of the dishes did not go down empty. By having the champagne thus, I find it goes much further than if only one bottle was opened at the time, there being sufficient left in the bottles for a gentleman to challenge a lady to take champagne with him. If I have game I remove the top and bottom dishes with them, and make the sweets a separate course, taking care to have cold plates for the jelly, and having the


[Illustration: A knife and fork used for eating fish.]




[Illustration: A large needle-like utensil.]




[Illustration: A metal carrying device with two baskets each of which contain a crystal or glass cruet.]




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liquors handed round when the sweets are on the table; one cheese I place opposite Mr. B., and macaroni opposite myself. In the dessert I generally introduce some new importation, such as bananas, sugar-cane, American lady apples, prickly pears, &c.; these also give a subject for the gentlemen to talk about when the ladies have left, as free trade, colonial policy, &c. About half an hour after the dessert is on the table, and when I see that the conversation is becoming less general, I retire to the drawing-room; the servants then remove the used glass and plates, and Mr. B. introduces some of his choice claret or Burgundy in ice coolers."

[Illustration: Two conjoined baskets for chilling wine.]

There are so many varieties of evening parties that no directions can be given respecting them. As a general rule, we would advise that they should be as simple, unostentatious, and sociable, as possible. It is the extravagance which has been introduced into these matters, the insane desire of outvying each other felt by individuals, which is the bar to real social enjoyment, and prevents us from being as lively a people as the French. Why cannot we meet to converse, have music, dance, or amuse ourselves in any rational way, and be content with light, simple refreshments, and a sincere welcome? Surely such réunions are more enjoyable than crowds, grand suppers, superb toilettes which are scarcely seen in the crush, and suffocating heat or currents of cold air. Such assemblies upset the house of the party-giver for a week at least, weary and worry her, and are criticised most severely by all her "dear friends" who did not enjoy themselves, nor receive the attention they expected. In them all is most certainly "vanity and vexation of spirit;" there is no pleasant converse, no comfort, no intellectual enjoyment; weariness, lassitude, headache, and expense, are the only concomitants of such parties. May our "model housewife" have courage to reject them altogether.

[Illustration: A device to hold four or five small containers]

> CHAPTER VII.

FEW persons would believe what a waste of money and property arises simply from want of care. We cannot, of course, expect this carefulness from servants, from those who are often thought less, inexperienced girls, coming from a home where there was little worthy of care, perhaps from a place, where there was no time to bestow due attention on the various duties. Few servants stay long enough in a situation to become attached to, and, as it were, identified with


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it and its belongings; they are ever striving to "better themselves," or, in other words, obtain higher wages. It matters not that they are comfortable, that they like their employers; that they are well-treated, and not over-worked;--should some acquaintance or relative be receiving higher wages than they are getting, they will sacrifice all to "go and do likewise;" and too often not in order that they may contribute more to lay up a fund in case of illness or misfortune, but to be able to dress more smartly, or indulge in some favorite pleasure. All this is much to be regretted, as it too often entails loss of health, comfort, and respectability on the young woman. But it is not this point from which we now have to regard it. It is the mistress, not the servant, whom we are addressing, and whom we would guard from the troubles which must befall her, if she too, be careless, if she does not know and see that her property is well managed and regularly and properly attended to.

We have before said that no household knowledge can be deemed superfluous, or ought to come amiss to a woman, who is to be at the head of a house. Surely she is not the less a lady because she understands how her house should be managed and cleaned, and kept tidy?--because she can teach her servants when they are ignorant, put method into their proceedings when they are careless, and quietly but attentively look on and superintend when they are tolerably efficient? We are all made of the same clay, though differently tempered by education and position; we are all subject to vicissitudes, and cannot tell what a day, or even an hour, may bring forth; is it not, then, wiser to be armed at all points, prepared for all circumstances, equal to any emergency?

These preliminary remarks have been made to preface the directions we are about to give for the daily routine of a servant's duties, which else might have seemed out of place here, had it not been our opinion that, in order to manage servants well, a mistress should fully understand what their actual duties are.

Early rising is indispensable if a servant would do her duty; it is not possible that the rooms can be dusted, the fires lit, the breakfast got ready, and all the little incidental jobs done, unless a servant is down stairs at least two hours before breakfast-time. We should fix six o'clock as the proper hour at which work should begin all the year round; for in winter even more has to be done than in summer, and few things are more unpleasant than to have servants pottering about their work all day, instead of getting through the chief and dirtiest part of it in the morning hours. If we make a call, which gives us the most favorable impression of the family,--to see a tidy-looking, clean servant, answer the door; or to have it opened by one who looks as if she had deemed it necessary when blacking the stoves to black her own person also?

A servant should be trained to rise about half-past five, throw open her bed, and her window, too, when the weather permits; unclose the shutters of the staircase and dining-room, open the windows of this latter to air it; pass into the kitchen, and open the shutters and windows there; light the kitchen fire; well rinse the kettle, and fill it with fresh water; see that the boiler is well supplied with water, and then proceed to prepare the room required for breakfast.

The rug must be folded up and removed, and the proper cloth laid down in front of the fire-place before the grate is touched (we are supposing that it is winter); the box containing the black-lead and brushes for a black stove, or the emery paste, and leather, brushes, cloth, &c., for a polished stove, and the scuttle containing coal, wood, &c., must be brought up.


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Once a week, at least, the soot should be gently swept down from the chimney into a shovel, as it otherwise gathers all round the lower ledges, and is very apt to take fire. The stove must be polished with a brush, or a cloth, according to its nature, every morning, and thoroughly cleaned at least once a week. The fire may then be laid and lighted, and in doing this there is some art. Where one girl will light and re-light the same fire three or four times over, consuming in each attempt a quantity of wood, and paper, another will, with less wood, kindle a brisk fire at once. The mystery lies in obtaining a perfect draught of air through the pile of materials, and placing those in juxtaposition which are most combustible in nature. Where this is properly done there will be little smoke, and great saving of fuel; but fire-lighting requires the use of one's senses and some skill, commonplace a matter as we may think it.

This much having been done, the sweeping comes next. Now, it will not be requisite thoroughly to sweep the carpet all over above once a week; on the other six days those parts of the room chiefly used, alone requisite sweeping, and this may be done with a dust-pan and a soft hand-brush. Then comes the dusting, and in doing this a feather brush should be used for the frames and chair covers, and a duster for the furniture. On the cleaning day the carpet must be well swept with a carpet-broom and tea-leaves, the furniture well cleaned and rubbed, the mantel-piece and ledges washed, the inside of the windows cleaned, and every ornament well dusted.

[Illustration: A brush with bristles on both sides of the head.]

The street-door steps should be cleaned, the mats shaken, the passage swept, and the brasses polished before the family come down.

[Illustration: An illustration of handeled instrument with long bird feathers protruding from one end.]

The breakfast is then to be prepared; the cloth laid, the breakfast service properly arranged, the ham or eggs, or whatever it may be, cooked, the toast made, the butter set in clear, fresh water, the coffee prepared and the milk boiled.

[Illustration: The first of three brushes is long and cylindrical. The second has a row of tightly packed bristlesand a wooden handle. The third has bristles like a tassel and a long handle.]

The servant next proceeds to the bed-rooms, opens the windows, lays the bed-clothes back to air, and turns up the mattresses or feather-beds in each room; then empties the slops, cleanses and rinses all basins, ewers, bottles, &c., wipes up all slops, and brings fresh water to supply all wants in each room. The beds are then to be made, and the rooms dusted. On cleaning day, which should come for each room once a-week, the chamber utensils must all be well washed in warm water, the carpets taken up and shaken, and the furniture cleaned. During the summer the floor under the bed should be washed over three times a-week at least, to remove all dust and flue.

Before all this can be finished, the breakfast will have had to be removed, and this should be methodically done; the china being gathered on a tray without


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either fuss or rattle, the crumbs brushed from the cloth, and this latter doubled up in its original folds, and any crumbs which may have fallen on the floor swept up into a dust-pan.

The servant will now get her own breakfast, and then wash up and put away all the breakfast things, having first set aside all the catables, giving the scraps to the cat, and taking care that nothing is wasted.

The up-stairs work having been done, the candlesticks and lamps should be cleaned and trimmed; and then the knives cleaned. Where only one servant is kept, she will ere this have had to think about dinner, and manage so as to make the earlier preparations for that important matter between whiles. A mistress should always inform her domestic charged with such duties, what she intends having for dinner, when the girl is removing the breakfast things, otherwise she cannot possibly arrange her daily duties so as to attend to the cooking without neglecting them; and the mistress should, as far as possible, endeavor to arrange her dinner so as to suit the household duties of the particular day for which she is catering. For each day should have its special duties; as, Monday, the wash for towels, dusters, servants' clothes, &c., and looking up the clothes for the laundress; Tuesday, cleaning the attics; Wednesday, the best bed-rooms; Thursday, the drawing-room; Friday, the dining-room and plate; and Saturday, the hall, staircase, and kitchen, covers, &c. Such regulations once laid down, the servant will know what duties each day requires of her; and the mistress, being aware what has to be done, will be able to give her orders accordingly,--for nothing can be done without good management in a small household. Both mistress and servant must exercise forethought, or the whole day will be one scene of hurry, scurry, and discomfort.

The next thing, then, is dinner, and this meal having been served and removed, the servant must, if the family are in the habit of retiring to the drawing-room, run up and see that all is right there; the fires burning and curtains let down, if in winter, or any little customary summer arrangements made. Then comes washing up the dinner things, and preparing for tea, and serving that at the proper hour.

While the family are at tea is the best time for the servant to go up to the bed-rooms, turn down the beds, close windows, light fires, or perform any other customary or necessary duty.

The tray has to be removed, and cups used at that meal, washed and put away. The tea leaves should be squeezed tolerably dry, and put away in an old dish or basin, for sweeping. All window shutters should be closed and doors bolted at dusk, both in winter and summer. If supper is taken, it is usually carried up on a tray covered with a cloth; after that comes the putting out of all fires and lamps, the fastening the hall door, and then to rest.

Any one who takes the trouble to reflect upon the multifarious occupations of a female domestic, in a family where but one is kept, cannot but perceive the absolute necessity of a regular plan of proceedings, and also of the need there is for consideration, patience, and kindness. With all the activity and good-will in the world, it is physically impossible that a girl can be in two places at once; and yet she may be just performing some nice operation in cookery while a visitor may be knocking at the door, and her mistress ringing impatiently to have something done towards tidying herself or the apartment. How is this to be managed? It can only be settled quietly by the mistress bestirring herself, and aiding in smoothing the difficulty. Where two or more servants are kept, one should always


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be tidy and ready to answer the door, and the lady of the house and her apartments should always be mis à quatre épingles, or, in other words, in such order that a visit from royalty itself would scarcely create any bustle. Indeed, the test of a well-arranged establishment is the absence of all fuss. The advent of relatives from the country bent on finding a home and a bed there, the arrival of unexpected guests to dinner, or any such unexpected events, will, of course, slightly derange the economy of a household, especially if it be a small one; but our housewife will not allow this to be visible. Quietly and without confusion she will take opportunities of giving the necessary orders; and if her servants are regularly trained, they will comprehend and second her at once. In every house spare sheets, blankets, and bed-clothes should always be kept aired, in case of their being required on any sudden emergency, and this can be done by laying them between the palliasse and mattress of any bed in regular use. We have before spoken of the advantage of always having the store-closet well supplied. It is a great mistake to fancy that anything is saved by purchasing articles that will keep, in small quantities, and certainly the loss of time incurred by having constantly to send out for trifles, is both a great waste and a great inconvenience. No servant can get through her work properly if she has repeatedly to run out on errands, or if she is called off frequently on frivolous pretexts. A mistress is quite right in exacting from her servants a regular and proper fulfilment of all their duties; but on her part she must give them time and opportunity to do this. If she sees they want method, she must try to teach them; and through all must remember how defective their early education has too often been, how little preparation they have received for the path of life they have to follow, and be patient with them. The great social evil of the present age is, that females are rarely trained with reference to their probable duties. This evil pervades all classes, from the lowest to the highest. The daughter of the millionnaire is seldom taught to consider how great are the social responsibilities her wealth and position impose upon her,--to regard herself as a steward of the Almighty, a medium through which His blessings may flow to those poor and unfortunate ones, whose lot is cast so far apart from hers. If she learns at all that "to whom much is given, much will be required," she probably imagines that much to be in the way of style, dress, and accomplishments; which, to a certain extent, is not far wrong, for the circulation of money is a commercial advantage, and those elevated in position should also be elevated in mental and moral attributes; but this is not all required of them. There is a duty to the poor, the duty of kindess, charity, and mercy. If all who have it in their power would but attend to this a little, how much good might be done! and what sits so gracefully on woman as such gentle deeds and holy virtues?

Then, as we have before said, the daughters of the working class are hardly prepared for their position as wives, mothers, and housewives; and the children of the poor have too often a still worse bringing up, being reared amid misery, poverty, dirt, and vice, if not in their own families, at least in many of those around them.

Vast as has been the general spirit of progression in this age, it is marvellous that these every-day matters have been, practically speaking, so totally overlooked. There is much theory, but the greater part of it is speculative and utopian. We are not advocates of systems, but would


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recommend good common sense instead; for systems can only be applied to certain parties and in certain ways, whereas common sense will cull the best parts of many systems, and adapt them to suit the peculiar position or character it has to deal with,--and thus give to that character a firmness and freedom from conventional prejudices which will, when strengthened by right principles, make it good and useful.

> CHAPTER VIII.

AMONG the many duties a woman is called upon to fulfil, surely none can be deemed of such paramount importance as those she owes to her children. Now it is by no means our intention to write a chapter of "advice to mothers," or enter upon the subject of the education and general management of little people; all we have to do with the matter here is to notice it as forming a branch of our subject; for the nursery is an important part of a house, and upon its good management much of the comfort, as well as the health and well-being of every member of the family, will depend.

[Illustration: A bath with a round basin component which also has a reclined back rest.]

If ever a woman has need of thought, care, and patience, it is when she becomes a mother. Who can look upon that most helpless of all created beings--a new-born infant--and not feel pity for it, interest in it; and surely no mother can bestow her first kiss on the little unconscious innocent without feeling some sense of the responsibilities which now rest upon her--for it is not only a human being, but an immortal soul which is committed to her charge.

Wherever such an arrangement can be made, a good-sized airy room should be set apart for the nursery, and always kept scrupulously clean, well ventilated, and of an even wholesome temperature. Warmth is highly necessary to the health of infants and young children--but not the warmth of a close, over-heated room, for that oppresses their lungs, and makes them delicate and very susceptible of cold. Let the child be comfortably clad, and a natural temperature of body thus maintained. The health of very many infants is impaired by the foolish custom of exposing their little chests and arms by finely-worked low bodies and very short sleeves, tied up so as effectually to prevent their being of any use in the way of covering. Very young children have so little natural heat, that they absolutely require that the temperature of their bodies should be kept up, by means of clothing, to a proper standard.

The furniture of the nursery ought to be very simple, and to consist of no more things than are absolutely necessary. The "bassinet," a wicker basket stuffed very soft and lined within, two and a-half or three feet long, and one and a-half wide, has been used in England for very young infants, and may be carried about. Cradles and swinging cots are condemned by medical men, and are now less used than cribs. Children's chairs of various sizes, a washstand, shower bath, a child's bath, or a large earthernware basin fixed in a stand of wood, various vessels of earthenware, a nursery lamp for warming liquids when there is no fire, sponges and linen baskets--comprise the requisite articles of furniture. A wire guard for the fire, and


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bars for the windows should never be omitted.

[Illustration: A short folding screen.]

Next to warmth, in the category of matters indispensable to health is cleanliness. Morning and night, an infant or a child under three years of age, should be bathed in tepid water in winter, and cold water in summer. This operation should be performed both thoroughly and quickly, and then the whole body wiped quite dry with a soft towel, and the limbs and back gently rubbed with the hand. The skin of an infant is so delicate that a little dirt, a slight accumulation of powder, any dampness, any rough handling or friction with a coarse cloth, will break or crack it, and often produce a humor which is not easily got rid of. The clothes of an infant, and especially those in immediate contact with its body, should be soft and clean. Its bed-clothes must likewise be kept well aired, and free from damp and unpleasant smells.

[Illustration: Three assorted water vessels.]

[Illustration: A small bath that tappers at the foot end.]

Very young children should be kept as much as possible, in a recumbent posture; the less a child is allowed to sit upright for the first six months, the stronger will be its back afterwards. Too strong a light is prejudicial to young children; neither within nor out of doors should their eyes be exposed to anything like glare; they ought likewise to be shielded from high winds. Sleep is a great strengthener of children, when it is natural, and care should be taken that they lie comfortably as regards position, are warm, and sheltered from all draughts and from light, though allowed sufficient air. In all things endeavor to establish regular habits from the very first; regular hours for feeding, sleeping, dressing, and undressing, should be observed. Few people can form an idea how much their own comfort and the child's well-being will be promoted by this. Of course, every now and then illness, or some unforeseen event, will interfere with this system, but it must be resumed again as soon as possible. We are aware that many people will deem this regularity unnecessary, but from the cradle to the grave, we are all more or less the creatures of habit; and from the time a child first begins to notice anything, its habits may be said to commence.

[Illustration: Two different baths, one for the legs and feet and one just for feet.]

When a child is fed, it should be from a proper bottle, and with light, thin food, not given too hot or in large quantities. Farinaceous substances of various kinds are best adapted for children of tender age. For the first twelvemonth these may be given in a fluid, and semi-fluid state, and afterwards in the shape of puddings either


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baked or boiled. Many children will not take meat, and they do not appear to thrive less than others; nature at this early age is generally the best pilot, and we shall seldom err if we follow her lead.

The period of teething is always one of anxiety, and requires additional care and watchfulness; but plenty of fresh air, good and sufficient, but not over-feeding, and an occasional warm bath or gentle aperient when there appears to be tendency to fever, will in most cases ward off serious evils. The less physic a child takes the better in a general way--not that we would advise mothers ever to slight any actual premonitory symptoms of illness; infantile diseases being frequently very rapid in their course.

There is no occasion to teach children to walk; when they are strong enough, they will invariably find out the proper use of their feet; let them lie on the floor, and then sit, and then crawl; and by-and-by they will stand up, and then walk along, holding by something; and then, when they appear capable of doing yet more, encourage them to venture alone, but watch carefully that they do not fall, or they may be frightened, and thrown back some weeks. After a child is a year old, it must cease to be regarded as an irrational being by those about it; a quick, lively baby is always taking notice; its intelligence is becoming daily and hourly developed;--in a word, the first rudiments of education are entering its little mind. This may sound extravagant and fanciful, but what says proverbial philosophy? "With his mother's milk the child drinketh education;" and let any one take three children of from a year-and-a-half to two years old, one of the three shall have been brought up by a quiet or ignorant nurse, one by an affectionate and sensible mother, and the other among a family of children; the first, unless it be a prodigy, will be far behind the second in quickness, and the third will be as much before the second. We would punish any one who mispronounced words before babies, or taught them to call things or animals by ridiculous names; and we would doubly punish any one who instilled fear into the hearts of young children by threats of "bogies," "black men," and such like nursery monsters. Many a grown man and woman has found it difficult to overcome the dislike to darkness implanted in them when young children by some nursery bug-bears. Teach a child rather to believe that angels watch over it, induce it to be good from a fear of grieving its parents, but never destroy or sully that sweet confidence which is the most blessed part of childhood. Never tell a child a falsehood either; if you promise a thing, do it; if you say a thing, act up to it. Empty threats and vain promises made to quiet a child, teach it afterwards, in its turn, to disregard truth, and make it distrust those whom, next to God, it should love and honor; whereas "example is a constant monitor."

We are not advocates for "cramming" children too early with crude, dry learning; but much may be taught without effort. "Line upon line" may be instilled by such simple stories, such pleasant gossip as children love to listen to, such bright pictures as they delight to look upon and have explained to them. There is in the present age a royal road to all the fundamental instruction needed by children for the first eight or ten years of their lives; the dull, uninteresting paths we had to tread are now decked with so many flowers that they have become attractive and pleasant. Even the very toys and games are made means of improvement; and history, arithmetic, and geography may now be learned as actual amusements.

The physical wants of growing children are a sufficiency of good, plain food at regular hours, exercise in the open air,


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well-ventilated rooms, clothing warm enough to promote health, and sufficiently easy in fit not to impede growth or a free use of the limbs: strong shoes or boots to protect the feet from damp, and a proper allowance of sleep taken at regular hours,--no child under six years of age being suffered to sit up after eight o'clock, and all under twelve being safely in bed by nine.

Late hours, hot, crowded places, as theatres, &c., and children's parties, are all very destructive of health; irregularities of all kinds are to be avoided, such as too long walks, any great excitement or over-fatigue; for growing children require all their strength and energies for natural purposes; and being more excitable than grown persons, exhaust themselves the sooner.

It may be thought by some that we are diverging from our subject, but "our housewife," if she be now single, may have younger sisters and brothers, and may probably one day have children of her own, when she will learn

"How infinite the wealth of love and hope,
Garnered in those same tiny treasure houses!
And oh! what bankrupts in the world we feel,
When death, like some remorseless creditor,
Seizes on all we fondly thought our own."

At all events, the care of children is one of woman's most solemn responsibilities--one of the most sacred of all the trusts committed to her care; for has not a child an immortal soul?

Those who live much among children should carefully purify their every thought, word, and action,--for the ductile and impressionable nature of a child, chameleon-like, takes its hue from that of the characters which surround it. "The seeds of first instructions are dropped into the deepest furrows;" therefore we cannot omit this chapter of our "Thoughts and Maxims."

If we would cultivate a flower with success, we plant it in a fitting soil, we water it at proper times, we give to it its due proportion of air and sun; shall we not equally study the constitution and physical requirements of a child, in order to bestow upon it the requisite nurture? for children, like flowers, require study--all are not equally hardy, equally vigorous, equally beautiful. Some resemble hot-house plants, and are frail and delicate; others, like the hardy evergreen, can bear and brave change of temperature and hardship. The system which would be suitable for one of these natures would be injurious to the other--hence, judgment is needful.

Again, if we would train a vine so as to render it luxuriant and productive of fine fruit, we bestow much pains on the arrangement of each branch; we do not neglect the smallest shoot, or wantonly injure or twist the least branch; if we prune, we do so but to remove that which might militate against the health or produce of the tree. Shall we bestow less culture upon the moral education of a child? Shall we not, with equal care, endeavor to remove each evil propensity, and foster each good disposition? Is not the fruit of tenfold more importance? Pure and innocent is the mind of a child; let no care be spared to preserve it so. Those who would govern children by harshness greatly err; a child never loves the person it fears; besides, all fear is more or less slavish and degrading. Rather teach them to act rightly from a sense of what is right and what is wrong; found their obedience on affection; give them principles of action, and teach them to reason and think, and, above all, make religion their guiding star.

A child who fears God and honors his parents is armed for the world's warfare with a breast-plate, which, if not invulnerable, at least will turn aside many an


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arrow. Our favorite Tupper quaintly but truly says:--"When his reason yieldeth fruit, make thy child thy friend, for a filial friend is double gain, a diamond set in gold. As an infant thy mandate was enough; as he grows in years, let him hear thy reasons." Believe me, we wantonly trifle not only with our own happiness, but with that of those little ones committed to our charge, when we neglect to watch over the treasures we ought so dearly to prize, when we trifle with the hearts, minds, and souls of our children, ignoring their value, our responsibility, and the awful reckoning which will be required of us. We are all too apt to treat children as dolls, to dress and caress them one hour, and send them out of our way the next, not deeming that beneath the seeming thoughtless gaiety of those little ones there lurks a world of feeling and sensibility. Kindness is as necessary to them as daily food. We do not mean false indulgence, but considerate kindness. An unjust, a cold or harsh word or action, especially if undeserved, penetrates the heart of a child with as keen a sting as it does ours; and who shall say how many have grown up callous and reckless from having their first affections blunted, their feelings and wishes disregarded? Consistent practice is worth a whole world of precept, and example will influence while words or coercion are fruitless.

Once more, then, we would beg "our housewife" to study what are her duties towards children. We would entreat mothers so to train their daughters that they may never have cause to blush and tremble for their grandchildren. It is no figure of speech to say that "the child is father to the man;" study diligently, therefore, how best {qoute} "--to rear the tender thought,
To teach the young idea how to shoot;
To pour fresh instruction o'er the mind,
To breathe the enlivening spirit, and to fix
The generous purpose in the glowing breast."

Nor let children, who should be our blessings, become our treatments,

"While young our folly, and when old our fear."

Lastly, but not of the least importance in the good training of children it should be rigidly observed by parents, never to show any difference of opinion in their treatment before them. Nothing can be more pernicious to their moral culture, engendering in them habits of disobedience, for they cannot obey one parent without disobeying the other. We earnestly recommend attention to this observance; for, besides the evil of disobedience that is almost sure to follow a difference in opinion from those in authority over the child, the latter is sometimes prone to disregard the instructions and admonitions of both, and set up principles of his own, more in accordance with his inclinations, however erroneous they may be.

A chapter is devoted to cookery for children.

> CHAPTER IX.

ANOTHER duty, of great importance, devolves on woman; namely--the care of the sick. From the highest to the lowest none are, properly speaking, exempt from this charge. 'Tis true that those who are rich can hire experienced nurses, but still the responsibility, the anxiety, rests with the mistress, for she cannot hire affection, thoughtful care, and all those little attentions which make the sole comfort of an invalid; she can merely secure a species of human machine which mechanically performs its duties, and between whiles eats, drinks, sleeps, and comforts itself. There are many excellent and kind-hearted professional


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nurses, but there are also more who become, as it were, petrified by the habitual contemplation of suffering, and who merely regard the patient with an eye to business.

In a sick room the kindness and attention of the nurse often work far greater marvels than the skill of the doctor, for she is there every hour, she sees every change, and can minister to many little wants. Those trifles which make up the events of an invalid, those minor details, so unimportant to a person in health, those whims, and desires, and nervous susceptibilities which appear almost childish to lookers-on, will be studied by a good, conscientious nurse, and overlooked or disregarded by one who either does not feel interested in the patient, or has not sufficient sympathy to induce her to study these matters. In the former case, the invalid will be soothed and cheered; in the latter, irritated and depressed. Surely it is not difficult to conceive which influence must act most beneficially upon the system.

Gentleness, watchfulness, firmness, judgment, some delicacy of feeling, and savoir faire, and a truly Christian spirit, are the distinguishing characteristics which will best adapt a woman for fulfilling this phase of her duties. There are many who, from intense solicitude or romantic devotion, will give way to those impulses of feeling which lead them to devote themselves so entirely to the nursing of some beloved relative, that all other duties, and even self, are wholly forgotten. What is the consequence of this error of judgment? Their own health succumbs, and they become not only useless, but render themselves sources of trouble and anxiety. How much better to have husbanded their strength so as to be able to remain useful! That despised article, common sense, would teach us all so much if we would but stop to listen; if we would not mount, each one, our own peculiar hobby, and gallop off at a tremendous rate, heedless of all sign-posts, and often regardless of even hedges and ditches. Affection! feeling! sentiment! nerves! how much has been done and left undone in these names! while poor dear common sense has been decried as a most unfeeling person, and rudely ejected when she strove to make herself heard.

Yet in few places is common sense a more valuable assistant than in the sick room; aided by self-command and good feeling, she will transform the most uninitiated person into an excellent and efficient nurse. Let us hear a few of her fundamental principles.

Speak in a low but perfectly distinct voice, both to the invalid and to any one who enters the room, in order that, although no unnecessary sound may be heard, the patient's ear may not be fatigued by striving to catch the words, or excited by mutterings or whispers addressed to some one else.

Let your countenance be calm and cheerful, your manners soothing and hopeful, and your words such as may cheer or comfort the mind.

Avoid all fuss, all hasty movements, all noises that may startle or disturb; let even your dress and shoes be chosen with reference to quiet.

Keep everything in its place, so that in an instant you can put your hand on it when required; have hot water, clean cups, spoons, glasses, and well-aired body and bed linen always handy; let the air of the room be changed frequently; avoid all bad smells, or remove them as soon as possible; pay strict attention to the temperature of the chamber, and keep it as even as may be; and regulate the light with equal care.

The furniture of a sick room should be adapted to the wants of the invalid. A reclining-chair will be found convenient; and a rocking-chair for exercise, with a


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movable one for those who cannot walk. The bedstead should be contrived to afford ease by change of position. Dr. Arnott's hydrostatic bed has been mentioned as particularly useful for invalids.

All food offered to invalids should be daintily prepared, and presented in the most careful manner. How often, when one has been longing for food, has he turned from it with disgust, because he has seen the nurse cool it with her breath, or taste it, and then drop the spoon back into it, and present it. Nor is it well to inquire of invalids what shall be got for them. If they express a wish for some particular thing, well and good, let it be got for them, if reasonable; but a trifling delicacy unexpectedly brought will often tempt the appetite; besides, a sick person, or even a convalescent, is often too languid to be at the trouble of thinking about eating, and would sooner go without; or if he or she chooses something, it may be the very thing which would be improper or prejudicial, and then comes disappointment, and a species of disgust for all else, for in illness the appetite is ever capricious.

Nowhere is cleanliness of such paramount importance as in the sick room. Do not let us be misunderstood here. We do not mean that an immensity of sweeping, scouring, and dusting is to be done, but simply that the chamber must be kept clean and ventilated, that the bed and body linen must be changed often enough to refresh without fatiguing the patient, and that the air must be purified by means of vinegar, or other disinfectants.

As there are so many kinds of illness, no general rules can be laid down, and our friend, common sense, must be allowed to be the special adviser. In one case body and mind may be paralyzed by weakness or languor; in another the body may be agonized, and yet the mind clear and active; while in a third the body may be sane, the mind insane. Hence no one who is a mere machine, guided by certain rules, can be a good and efficient nurse; no one who does not study how to minister to the mind as well as the body, who will not endeavor, to a certain extent, to identify herself with the tastes, feelings, and even prejudices of the patient, can be really useful.

What we have hitherto said applies chiefly to adult patients; to nurse a sick child may seem a far easier task, but is not so. What gentleness, firmness, playfulness, and, above all, what patience is needed in the sick chamber of a child!--for in time of illness, a child is doubly a child, almost a baby again.

Every housekeeper should always have a store of old linen, cambric, and calico rags, and old pieces of flannel; these are easily obtained by saving worn-out linen, flannel, and other garments, or at least the useful portions of them, and treasuring old silk and cambric handkerchiefs. Such things are invaluable in time of sickness for poultices, fomentations, leeches, &c. Those who have them not will do well to visit a pawnshop, or the emporium of one of those purchasers of wardrobes; and having there found one or two articles of no value but to be torn up, to buy these, bring them home, have them thoroughly washed, and then put them away for use.

It may seem to some that we dwell too long on a sad and painful subject, but it is good for us at times to be serious, to turn from the contemplation of life's pleasures and enjoyments, and look upon its darker pages; for it has been beautifully said by an eminent writer, that "suffering is not a slender, dark thread, winding every now and then through a warp of dazzling brightness, but it is interwoven with the whole texture. It is not incidental, but designed for us; it


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enters into God's purposes; it has a great work to do, and we know nothing of life until we comprehend its purposes." Again: "Suffering nourishes the tenderest sympathies of our nature; it raises us to energy and a consciousness of our own powers, and at the same time infuses the meekest dependence on God; it stimulates us to cherish and prize the blessings of this world, and at the same time weans us from and lifts us above mere earthly things."

There is no home into which sickness may not come at any hour; and as it is to woman that the office of nurse is invariably delegated, surely every woman ought to learn betimes all that will best qualify her to become the ministering angel, whose presence shall bless the long hours of pain and confinement. False delicacy, foolish weakness, and all that can militate against usefulness, should be early overcome. We have seen a daughter scream, and weep, and wring her hands, while her mother lay fainting before her; we have seen a mother shriek and fall on her knees, and utter words of agony, when some accident happened to her child. But how did all this unavailing grief benefit the sufferers? How much better she does, who, controlling her feelings, thinks only how she can administer relief. Some might deem her callous, but others know what real feeling is concealed behind the pale face, white compressed lips, and quivering eyelids; to utter it might weaken her, and incapacitate her from rendering that prompt assistance which may even be requisite to preserve life. It is our private opinion, that every woman should have a general knowledge of the anatomy of the human frame, and of the functions of its various organs; also, that she should be acquainted with chemistry to a sufficient extent to prevent her from committing absurd errors in cookery, or in the making of perfumes, cosmetics, and pomades, or pickles and confectionery; and to this we would add, that she will find it useful to understand the qualities and action of the drugs and medicaments in most common use, in order that she may not administer them to herself, or any members of her family "promiscuously," but with some slight notion of what she is about. We do not, however, mean to advise "our housewife" to practise quackery on herself or those belonging to her; for many a constitution has been ruined by injudicious physicking; but there are cases in which some household remedy, promptly applied, will often prevent a long illness, and then every one should know how to act.

Women should understand the making and applying of poultices, leeches, fomentations, warm baths, and similar things; but how few do! They may fancy themselves clever in such matters. We have known a young person who rushed headlong on in everything of the kind she undertook; made a poultice in the kitchen, and wondered that it was cold as ice by the time she had carried it up to the second floor; applied fomentations, and damped the bed and night-clothes, so that a chill, instead of heat, was produced.

In another portion of our book is given a large list of articles of food for invalids, with directions for cooking; and also a chapter containing remarks on diseases common in families.

> CHAPTER X.

> THE STORE-ROOM AND MARKETING.

IT must be borne in mind that an inventory of furniture, linen, and china should be kept, and the things examined by it twice a year, or oftener if there be a change of servants; the articles used by servants should be intrusted to their


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care, with a list, as is done with plate. In articles not in common use, such as spare bedding, tickets of parchment, numbered and specifying to what they belong, should be sewed on each; and minor articles in daily use, such as household cloths and kitchen requisites, should be occasionally looked to. The best means to preserve blankets from months is to fold and lay them under the feather-beds that are in use, and shake them occasionally; when soiled, they should be washed, not scoured.

A proper quantity of household articles should always be allowed for daily use. Each should also be kept in its proper place, and applied to its proper use. Let all repairs be done as soon as wanted, remembering the old adage of "a stitch in time;" and never if possible, defer any necessary household duty a moment beyond the time when it ought to be attended to.

[Illustration: A refrigerator with eight shelves, four on the left and the right.]

A Store-room is essential for the custody of articles in constant use, as well as for others which are only occasionally called for. These should be at hand when wanted, each in separate drawers, or on shelves and pegs, all under the lock and key of the mistress, and never given out to the servants but under her inspection.

Pickles and preserves, prepared and purchased sauces, and all sorts of groceries, should be there stored; the spices pounded and corked up in small bottles, sugar broken, and everything in readiness for use. Lemon-peel, thyme, parsley, and all sorts of sweet herbs, should be dried and grated for use in seasons of plenty; the tops of tongues saved, and dried for grating into omelets, &c.; and care taken that nothing be wasted that can be turned to good account.

Bread is so heavy an article of expense that all waste should be guarded against, and having it cut in the room will tend much to prevent it; but, for company, small rolls, placed in or on the napkin of each guest, are the most convenient, as well as the most elegant. Bread should be kept in earthern pans with covers.

Sugar being also an article of considerable expense in all families, the purchase demands particular attention. The cheapest does not go so far as that better refined, and there is a difference even in the degree of sweetness. The close, heavy, and shining white, or loaf-sugar, should be chosen. The best sort of brown has a bright, crystalline appearance, as if mixed with salt, and if feeling coarse when rubbed between the fingers, is better than when more powdery. East India sugars are finer for the price, but not so strong; consequently, unfit for wines and sweetmeats, they do well for common purposes. To pound white sugar, rolling it with a bottle, and sifting, wastes it less than a mortar.

Both soap and tallow candles are improved by keeping, and are best when made in cool weather; at which time it will be prudent to lay in a stock of both. They are, indeed, better for being kept


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eight or ten months, nor will they spoil for two years if kept in a cool place; and there are few articles that better deserve care in buying, and allowing a regulated quantity of, according to the size of the family.

Wax, spermaceti, and composite candles ought to be always purchased in quantities of not less than a dozen pounds, on which an allowance is usually made.

Soap should be cut in pieces that will make a long square, when first brought in, and kept out of the air two or three weeks; for, if it dries quickly, it will crack, and, when wet, break. Put it on a shelf, leaving a space between each piece, and let it grow hard gradually; thus it will save a full third in the consumption; but, for coarse washing, soft soap will go further than the hard.

Soda, by softening the water, saves a great deal of soap. It should be melted in a large ewer of water, some of which pour into the tubs and boiler; and when the latter becomes weak add more.

[Illustration: An iron with a small container for liquid attached at the back end.]

Many good laundresses advise soaping linen in warm water the night previous to washing, as facilitating the operation with less friction. This should always be done with fine muslins and laces.

The price of starch depends upon that of flour; the best will keep good in a dry warm room for some years.

Everything should be kept in the place best suited to it, as much waste may thereby be avoided.

Great care should be taken of jelly-bags, tapes for collared things, &c., which, if not perfectly scalded and kept dry, give an unpleasant flavor when next used.

Vegetables will keep best on a stone floor, if the air be excluded; meat in a cold dry place, where the air is freely admitted; sugar and sweetmeats require a dry place, so does salt; candles, cold, but not damp; dried meats, hams, bacon, and tongues, the same. All sorts of seed for puddings, such as rice, &c., should be covered close to preserve them from insects; but if kept long that will not be sufficient, unless they be occasionally sifted. Apples and pears should be laid upon very clean and dry straw, to prevent a musty taste; nor should they be exposed to either light or air. The floor of a dark garret is a good place in which to deposit them; or, which is still better, shelves made by strips of wood about two inches wide, placed an inch and a half apart, and the apples laid between them. They should be ranged singly in rows, without touching each other, and should be often inspected, both to wipe them, if damp, and to reject those which may appear to be getting rotten; but the larger sort of pears should be tied up by the stalk. Apples may also be preserved in excellent condition for a long period by being packed in large barrels with dry sand, but require to be used immediately when they are taken out.

Coarse nets suspended in the store-room are very useful in preserving the finer kinds of fruit, lemons, &c., which are spoiled if allowed to touch. When lemons and oranges are cheap, a proper quantity should be bought and prepared, both for preserving the juice, and keeping the peel for sweetmeats and grating; especially by those who live in the country, where they cannot always be had.


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They are perpetually wanted in cookery.

The best way of scalding fruits, or boiling vinegar, is in a stone jar, on a hot iron hearth, or by putting the vessel into a saucepan of boiling water, called a water-bath, after its having been closely corked, but not quite filled, as the heat may occasion the fruits to swell; but if they diminish after this is done, the vessel must then be filled.

Onions, shallots, and garlic should be hung up for winter use in ropes from the ceiling; as should dried parsley, basil, savory, and knotted-marjoram, or London-thyme, and tarragon, to be used when herbs are ordered, but with discretion, as they are very pungent.

Hams should be well covered in paper bags, and put in a chest or barrel, with layers of charcoal or ashes between. When you take one out to cut for use, put it away in a dark place, well covered.

Herbs should be kept from the air. Herb tea, to do any good, should be made very strong. Herbs must be gathered while in blossom. Those who have a little ground will do well to raise the most useful herbs; apothecaries make large profits on them.

Suet and lard keep better in tin than earthen-ware. Suet keeps good a year, if chopped, packed in a stone jar, and covered with molasses. Or, pick suet free from veins and skin, melt it in water before a moderate fire, let it cool till it forms a hard cake, then wipe it dry and put it in clean paper, in linen bags.

> MARKETING.

Although respectable butchers may, in most cases, be relied upon for the goodness of the meat which they sell to regular customers, yet many persons (both ladies and gentlemen) go to market and choose for themselves, when, if not competent judges, the inferior sorts generally fall to their lot. In country towns, also, there are frequently but one or two market-days in the week; and the meat being brought from a distance, it is an essential point of good housekeeping to be so well acquainted with the quality as not to be easily imposed upon.

BEEF.--Well-fed beef may be known by the texture and color; the lean will exhibit an open grain of deep coral-red, and the fat will appear of a healthy, oily smoothness, rather inclining to white than yellow. The suet firm and white. Yellow fat is a test of meat of an inferior quality. Heifer beef is but little inferior to ox beef; the lean is of a closer grain, the red paler, and the fat whiter. Cow beef may be detected by the same signs, save that the older the beast the texture of the meat will appear closer, and the flesh coarser to the sight, as well as harder to the touch. The grain of bull beef is coarser and closer still, the fat hard and skinny, the lean of a deep red, and it has a stronger scent. Ox beef is the richest and largest; but in small families, and to some tastes, heifer beef is preferred, if finely fed. In old meat, a streak of horn runs between the fat and lean of the sirloin and ribs; the harder this is, the older, and the flesh is not finely flavored; that is to say, the horn has become so firm as to appear like bone; but oxen are always the better if kept until five or six years old.

OX TONGUE.--To choose a neat's tongue, it should be of moderate size, plump, firm, and smooth to the touch; for if the skin appears rough and shrivelled, it will be found hard and flavorless.

VEAL.--When you observe the kidney well surrounded with fat, you may be sure the meat is of good quality. The whitest is not the best veal; but the flesh of the bull-calf is of a brighter color than that of the cow-calf. The fillet of the latter is generally preferred on account of the udder. There is a vein in


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the shoulder very perceptible; and its color indicates the freshness of the meat; if a bright red or blue, it is recently killed; if any green or yellow spots are visible, it is stale. The suet will be flabby, and the kidney will smell. The other parts should be dry and white; if clammy or spotted, the meat is stale and bad. If more than eight or ten weeks old, the flesh becomes coarse. You will, of course, get it somewhat cheaper, and it may, to some palates, be found equally good in flavor, but not so delicate in either the color or the texture of the flesh.

MUTTON.--The best is of a fine grain, a bright color, the fat firm and white. It is better for being full-grown. The ram mutton may be known by the redness of the flesh, and the sponginess of the fat. The flesh of the ewe is paler, and the texture finer, but neither the meat nor gravy so well flavored, though a "maiden ewe," when it can be got, is considered particularly fine. If you wish to have a good haunch, choose one of small size and moderately fat, looking at the same time to the closeness of the grain and the whiteness of the fat; but more particularly see that the flesh is dark-colored, that being a proof of age, and the older the better. In boiled mutton this is not of so much importance as in roasted.

LAMB should be eaten very fresh. In the fore-quarter, the vein in the neck being any other color than blue betrays it to be stale. In the hind-quarter, try the kidney with your nose; the faintness of its smell will prove it to be stale. It loses much of its nicety of flavor after it reaches four months old. It ought, therefore, to be small and white in appearance, and well covered with fat; the younger the more delicate.

PORK.--The rind should be thin, the fat very firm, and the lean white; the principal point to be observed is the firmness of the fat. If the rind is tough, thick, and cannot easily be impressed by the finger, it is old. Pigs that are short in the legs and bodies, and have thick necks, and not long heads and ears, are always to be preferred. When fresh, the flesh will be smooth and dry; if clammy, it is tainted. What is called "measly pork" is very unwholesome, and may be known by the fat being full of kernels. Pork fed at still-houses does not answer for curing in any way, the fat being spongy. Dairy pork is the best.

Porkers from three to four months old are the most delicate, and six months is the latest age at which they should be killed as such.

BACON.--If the rind be thin, the fat firm and of a reddish tinge, the lean tender, of a good color, and adhering to the bone, you may conclude it is good and not old. If there are yellow streaks in it, it is rusty.

For hams, stick a sharp knife under the bone, and also up to the knuckle. If it comes out with a pleasant smell, the ham is good; but do not buy it if the knife has a bad scent. Hams short in the hock are best; nor should long-legged pigs be chosen for any purpose.

BRAWN.--The horny part of the young brawn will feel moderately tender, and the flavor will be better than the old, the rind of which will be hard.

VENISON.--The fat should be clear, bright, and thick; and if the cleft of the haunch be smooth and close, it is young; but if the cleft is close and tough, it is old. To judge of its sweetness, run a very sharp narrow knife into the shoulder or haunch, and you will know by the scent. Few people like it when it has much of the haut-goût; but it bears keeping better than any sort of meat, and if eaten fresh killed it is not so good as mutton. Observe the neck of a fore-quarter; if the


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vein be bluish, it is fresh; if it have a green or yellow cast, it is stale. In the hind-quarter, if there is a faint smell under the kidney, and the knuckle is limp, the meat is stale. If the eyes be sunk, the head is not fresh. When you can learn where it has been reared, choose forest-venison, as that is the best; for some of the dealers stall-feed the deer, and fatten them with oil-cake. It should be full five years old.

In every sort of provisions the best of the kind goes furthest, cuts up to greatest advantage, and affords most nourishment. Round of beef, fillet of veal, and leg of mutton, are joints that bear a higher price; but as they have more solid meat, they deserve the preference. It is worth notice, however, that those joints which are inferior may be dressed as palatably, and, being cheaper, they ought to be bought in turn.

In loins of meat, the long pipe that runs by the bone should be taken out, as it is apt to taint; as also the kernels of beef. Rumps and aitchbones of beef are often bruised by the blows the drovers give the beasts, and the part that has been struck always taints; therefore, do not purchase these joints if bruised.

All meat should be carefully examined, and wiped with a dry cloth as soon as it comes in; and if flies have blown upon it, the part must be cut off. This should be daily observed until it is dressed, as it not only tends to preserve the meat long in perfection, but prevents that musty flavor too often perceived in the outer slice when brought to table.

In the country, where meat is often carried a great distance, it should be well covered up with a cloth, over which fresh cabbage-leaves would keep it cool. These cautions are more needful, as in some families great loss is sustained by the spoiling of meat. The fly may in some measure be prevented by dusting upon the parts most likely to be attacked, pepper and ginger mixed, after wiping, which should never be omitted; but a more easy and effectual mode is to exclude the fly by using a wire meat-safe, or to cover the joints with a long loose gauze or thin cloth, and hang them up from the ceiling of an airy chamber.

In summer meat should be wiped every day, or sprinkled with pepper to keep off the flies; and should it wear any appearance of becoming tainted, it should be brushed over with pyroligneous acid; or even if already slightly infected, either the acid or roughly-pounded charcoal, if well rubbed into the meat, will restore it. The meat should also be brought in early in the morning, as, if much exposed to the sun, the heat will render it flabby. In frosty weather, meat is sometimes in a congealed state, and should be thawed by soaking it in cold water before putting it to the fire.

Meats become more tender, and consequently more digestible, as well as better flavored, by hanging; but veal and lamb will not bear it so long as the flesh of older animals. In summer, two days is long enough for lamb and veal, and from three to four for beef and mutton; in cold weather, these latter may be kept for more than double that time without risk of being tainted.

> POULTRY AND GAME.

Turkey.--The cock bird when young has a smooth black leg with a short spur. The eyes bright and full, and moist supple feet when fresh; the absence of these signs denotes age and staleness; the hen may be judged by the same rules.

Fowls like a turkey; the young cock has a smooth leg and a short spur; when fresh the vent is close and dark. Hens when young have smooth legs and combs; when old these will be rough.

Geese.--In young geese the feet and bills will be yellow and free from hair.


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When fresh the feet are pliable; they are stiff when stale.

Ducks may be selected by the same rule.

Pigeons, when fresh, have supple feet, and the vent will be firm; if it be discolored and supple they are stale.

Plovers, when fat, have hard vents; but, like almost all other birds, may be chosen by the same rules.

Other game birds may be chosen by the above rules.

> TO CHOOSE FISH.

Fish.--In every sort of fish, stiffness, redness of the gills, and brightness of the eyes, are invariable signs of freshness; thickness of the flesh generally marks the good condition of all fish, and its firmness is an essential requisite. Fish, when quite fresh, curl round, but are particularly elastic, rising immediately upon the pressure of the fingers; and their staleness or freshness may be measured by the possibility of making an impression. If stale, the impression will remain; but, if fresh, it will rise again on removal of the pressure.

Salmon.--The fish stiff, the scales very bright, the belly thick, the gills a brilliant color, and the flesh when cut, a beautiful red, will prove it to be a fine fresh fish. It cannot be too fresh.

Cod.--The best fish are thick at the neck, very red gills, firm white flesh, bright and blood-shot eyes, and small head. The liver should be of an opaque white; the whiter, the better the fish; when out of season the liver becomes red. It is improved by being crimped, as this increases its firmness, and then it requires keeping one day before using.

Whitings.--A clear color and firm bodies, indicate a superior quality.

Mackerel.--Bright eyes, thick bodies, stripes black on the back, the prismatic colors very predominant on the belly, denote freshness and goodness. The male is the best; his stripes are straight; those of the female, wavy.

Pike, Carp, Perch, Smelts, Gudgeons, &c., may be judged by the above rules.

Eels.--The bright silver-hued belly and thickness of back, are the guides in their selection.

Lobsters.--To be had in perfection should be boiled at home; choose the heaviest. When they are boiled the tail should have a good spring; the cock lobster has a narrow tail in which the two uppermost fins are stiff and hard; the hen has a broad tail, and these fins are softer. The male has the best flavor; the flesh is firmer; and the color when boiled is brighter than the hen.

Oysters.--There are many sorts of oysters; when the oyster is alive the shell will close upon the knife; the common oyster should be used for sauce and the natives, of which there are several kinds, should be sent to table.

> CHAPTER XI.

UNDER the head of Domestic Manipulation, we propose giving a series of articles on the numerous and essential manual operations that are constantly required in every family, and which, whether they are well or ill done, must of necessity be performed. The term Domestic Manipulation, employed in the widest sense, would include all the manual operations required in a house, but we propose to limit it to such as partake in a slight degree of a scientific character; thus the operations of Filtering, Decanting, Weighing, Measuring, Bottling, Corking, Unstoppering, Pounding, Heating, Boiling, Distilling, Cementing, &c. &c. will be included; whilst Dusting, Washing, and Scrubbing, though no less,


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in strictness, manipulations, will be passed over in silence.

We propose treating of the manipulations connected with BOTTLES AND DECANTERS, &c., under the following heads: Cleaning, Drying, Corking, Tying down, Stoppering, and Unstoppering.

Cleaning.--Perhaps no more effectual and easy mode of cleaning wine and beer bottles can be recommended than that commonly adopted, viz., the use of small shot and water; in the case of old port wine bottles, however, it often occurs that the mechanical action of the shot does not remove the hardened crust from the interior; a small quantity of pearlash or soda, or still better, washing liquids, added to the water, will soften the crust sufficiently to permit its easy removal. There is, however, one objection to the use of shot for the purpose of cleaning bottles; unless due care be taken, by the violence of the shaking it often happens that several become firmly wedged between the bottom and sides of the bottles, and are not removed by the subsequent rinsings of clean water, and if the bottles are used for acid wines or other liquids, (almost all home-made wines contain a considerable portion of free acid,) the shots are slowly dissolved; and from the metallic arsenic which they contain, as well as from the lead itself, the liquid is rendered poisonous. This effect may be readily guarded against by removing any shots which may have become fixed, by a stiff wire slightly hooked at the end.

Decanters are formed of flint glass, which is much softer and more readily scratched than the common kinds; they require therefore a less rough treatment; in general, warm (not boiling) water, with the addition of a few pieces of coarse brown paper, and if requisite a little soda, will be found effectual; should greater force be required, a small portion of tow wrapped round the notched end of a moderately stiff wire, and used with a little strong soda, will be found sufficient. Sand or ashes should never be employed in cleaning decanters, as they roughen and totally disfigure the brilliant surface of the glass.

Drying.--It is scarcely necessary to speak of the advantages of being able to dry thoroughly both decanters and common bottles; if the former, after having been cleaned, are put away wet, they become musty; and many liquids are much injured by being put into wet bottles. Some of our readers have doubtless experienced the inefficiency of the ordinary means of drying decanters, &c.; after draining for some days they still remain damp, and if placed near a fire the warmth merely drives the vapor to the colder part of the vessel; they may, however, be readily and quickly dried after draining, by making them slightly warm and blowing in fresh air with a pair of bellows, which rapidly carries out the damp vapor, and leaves the vessel perfectly dry. If bellows are not at hand, the damp air may be drawn out (not blown) with the mouth, assisted by a tube sufficiently long to reach nearly to the bottom of the decanter; in the laboratory a piece of glass tube is usually taken, being always at hand, but for domestic use a piece of paper may be rolled up so as to form an extemporaneous and effectual substitute.

Corking.--Little can be said with regard to the corking of bottles, beyond stating the fact that cheap bad corks are always dear; the best corks are soft, velvety, and free from large pores; if squeezed they become more elastic and fit more closely. If good corks are used of sufficiently large size to be extracted without the corkscrew, they may be employed many times in succession, especially if they are soaked in boiling water


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afterwards, which restores them to their original shape, and renews their elasticity.

Tying down.--The operation of tying down corks merits a longer notice, as without it many effervescent liquids could not be preserved. The most common mode of fastening down corks, is with the ginger-beer knot, which is thus made: First the loop is formed as in Fig. 1 then that part of the string which passes across the loop is placed on the top of the cork, and the loop itself passed down around the neck of the bottle, and by pulling the ends of the cord is made tight beneath the rim; the ends of the cord is made tight beneath the rim; the ends of the string are finally brought up, and tied either in a double knot, or in a bow on the top of the cork. When ginger-beer is made at home, it will be found most advantageous to use the best corks, and to tie them down with a bow, when both corks and strings may be made use of repeatedly.

[Illustration: A loop in a string with the loop un top of the strings.]

[Illustration: String heading up and then curving to the left and then passing under itself and then exiting to the right.]

For effervescent wines, such as champagne, gooseberry, &c., which require to be kept a longer time, and are more valuable, a securer knot is desirable, which may be made thus:--A loop as in Fig. 2 is first formed, and the lower end is then turned upwards and carried behind the loop as shown at Fig. 3; it is then pulled through the loop as in Fig. 4, and in this state is put over the neck of the bottle; the part a being on one side, and the two parts of the loop on the other; on pulling the two ends the whole becomes tight round the neck, and the ends, which should be quite opposite, are to be brought up over the cork, twice twisted, as in Fig. 5, and then tied in a single knot.

[Illustration: An illustration of a loop in a knot to secure a top on effervescent wines.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a loop in a knot to secure a top on effervescent wines.]

[Illustration: An Illustration of the final loop in a knot to secure a top on effervescent wines.]

Stoppering.--The stoppering of bottles is an operation usually performed by the makers; it may, however, be useful to know that badly fitting stoppers may be readily fitted by regrinding; this is done by dipping the stopper in a mixture of fine sand, or still better, emery and water, replacing it, and turning it backwards and forwards with a slight pressure; fresh sand must be applied from time to time. When the fitting is exact, so that the stopper turns freely without shaking, the whole may be finished off by using a little fine emery and oil.

Unstoppering.--This operation is much more likely to be required than the last one described, for the stoppers of decanters, smelling-bottles, &c., from various causes, frequently become fixed, and many are the fractures both of bottles and stoppers, caused by the misdirected efforts to remove them. In treating of the various means that may be employed


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we will mention them in the order in which they should be tried, beginning with the simpler and more easy, and passing on to those which are more effectual, and at the same time, unfortunately, more dangerous. The first method, then, that should be tried, is to press the stopper upwards with the fore-finger and thumb of the left hand (the other fingers holding the neck of the bottle), and at the same time giving the stopper a succession of short, sharp, light taps, with the wooden handle of a chisel, knife, or small hammer; care must be taken not to strike the stopper with sufficient force to break it, and it should be borne in mind that it is not the force of the blow, but the vibration, or jar, which is effectual in loosening it; should this plan be found ineffectual after a short trial, it may probably be from the stopper being cemented by some substance, such as the dried sugar of a sweet wine. In such cases we should endeavor to dissolve the cement by a suitable solvent, which should be placed in the groove between the stopper and the bottle; thus if the stopper is cemented with sugar, gum, or salt, water may be used; in many circumstances, oil is advantageous, or spirit, or even strong acid may be used; whatever liquid is employed it should be allowed to remain some days, being renewed if requisite, and the tapping, &c., should be again had recourse to.

Should these methods fail, a piece of cloth may be dipped in very hot water and wrapped round the neck of the bottle, when the heat causes the expansion of the glass, and if the stopper be tapped or twisted before the heat has had time to enlarge it, its removal may be effected; this operation must necessarily be a quick one, for if the stopper is heated and enlarged, as well as the bottle, it is obvious that no benefit will result. In the laboratory it is often customary to heat the bottle, not by a strip of cloth dipped in hot water, but by turning it rapidly over the flame of a lamp; in this way there is more danger of cracking the bottle, and the plan is not to be recommended in general, although employed with considerable success by those who, like operative chemists, are constantly in the habit of applying heat to glass vessels. It will at once be seen that the plan is fraught with great danger if applied to bottles containing inflammable liquids, as spirits, &c.

The most effectual mode of removing stoppers, especially those of small bottles, such as smelling-bottles, remains to be described. Take a piece of strong cord, about a yard or four feet in length, double it at the middle, and tie a knot (Fig. 6, b) so as to form a loop (a) of about four inches in length at the doubled end, bring the knot close to one side of the stopper, and tie the ends tightly together on the opposite side, as at Fig. 7, e, so as to fasten the string securely round the neck of the stopper; now pass one of the ends through the loop (a), and then tie it firmly to the other end; the doubled cord is then to be placed over a bar or other support, then if the bottle is surrounded by a cloth to prevent accidents in case of fracture, and pulled downwards with a jerk, the force of which is gradually increased, it will be found that in a short time the stopper is liberated. Two precautions


[Illustration: An illustration of a knot that is used to remove stoppers from bottles.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a bottle top showing how the knot is used to remove the stopped from a bottle.]




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are requisite; one is, that the strain on both sides of the stopper is equal; the other, that care be taken that when the stopper is liberated, it is not dashed by the rebound against any hard substance, which would cause its fracture.

> CUTTING, GRINDING, AND WRITING ON GLASS.

We have described the most advantageous modes of extracting fixed stoppers from decanters, &c. It is possible that some of our readers may have followed our advice sufficiently well to have succeeded, in cracking the necks of their decanters. In case any should have been so unfortunate, or rather we would say, if we were quite sure we were not addressing ladies--so clumsy, let them not despair; dexterity in manipulation comes by practice; and as no evil is without a remedy, we will next consider what can be done with the broken decanter. Unless it is cracked down to the bottom, it may be cut off and converted into a handsome sugar basin; or if not high enough for that purpose, will serve for a pickle-dish, or a flower-stand, &c.; and in the same way, a tumbler broken at the upper part will furnish an elegant salt-cellar, or serviceable soap-dish; and even common bottles, if sufficiently stout, may be made into useful jars, instead of being consigned to the dust-heap.

The operation of cutting glass, consists in leading a crack in the required direction; this is readily done by a hot iron rod, a piece of pointed burning charcoal, or, what is still better, a burning pastile--which is somewhat similiar in its composition to those used for fumigation; and which latter, although rather expensive, and inconvenient from their shape, may be applied for the purpose. When the operation of cutting up glass vessels into useful forms is much had recourse to, pastiles are prepared for the purpose, being superior to a heated iron rod, as they continue to burn and retain their heat, whilst the latter requires to be re-heated, if the crack has to be led any considerable distance. Pastiles are readily made by rubbing up half an ounce of powdered gum tragacanth with water, so as to form a mucilage about as thick as ordinary starch; this should be allowed to remain a few hours, and then mixed with a quarter of an ounce of benzoin, previously dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of proof spirit; after mixing them together in a mortar, as much powdered charcoal should be added as will form a stiff paste, and the whole well worked together, rolled into sticks the size of a common black-lead pencil, and dried. As thus prepared, they should be free from cracks, and solid throughout; and on being ignited at the end, they will burn steadily away to a point. If an iron rod is used, it should be nearly as stout as the little finger, and taper at the end for an inch and a half to a blunt point. Before commencing the line along which it is wished to divide the glass, it should be marked with a pen and ink, and allowed to dry, when the iron, heated to dull redness, on the lighted extremity of the pastile, should be brought to the end of a crack, being held in a slanting direction with regard to the glass, as shown in the cut, and slowly moved in an oblique direction towards the line; the crack will be found to follow the heated point, and may thus be led as required, even passing over parts varying very considerably in thickness, as in the case of the flutings on a cut decanter; but it cannot, with certainty, be made to pass suddenly from a very thin to a very stout part, or the reverse: thus it may be led around the sides of a tumbler, but could hardly be made to pass down one side, across


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the bottom and up the other. The rapidity with which the operation is performed, depends upon the heat of the iron or pastile; if the former is very hot, or the latter made to burn more vividly by blowing upon it, the operation is quickened, but it is not performed with so much certainty, as the crack may pass on further than is desirable: care should be taken not to lead the crack to near the edge of the vessel, or to another crack, as in that case it is apt to leave the proper course, and fly suddenly to the edge, to which an inexperienced operator should not attempt to go nearer than half an inch.

[Illustration: An illustration of a glass being etched.]

It sometimes occurs that a piece is broken out of a glass, without leaving any crack to commence from; in this case, one must be made, by heating the edge (one formed by the fracture, if possible) with the iron or pastile, and instantly applying the moistened finger. When a crack is formed, which may be used as described above, care must be taken not to cause an extensive fracture, which may run across the intended line of division; this may be avoided by commencing the crack at some distance from the line, and by applying the heated point for a very short time, preferring to make two or three unsuccessful attempts rather than to hasten the operation, and risk the destruction of the glass. When a glass vessel has been thus divided, the edges are sufficiently sharp to cut the fingers in handling, and are usually wavy; it is therefore necessary to make them smooth and even. The most ready way of doing this is, by grinding them down on a flat sandstone, or ordinary paving-stone, with a little sharp sand or emery, and water, taking care to move the glass in a circular direction, and not merely backwards and forwards; the smoothness of the whole will depend entirely on that of the stone, and on the fineness of the sand or emery employed. If, from any irregularity, there is much glass to grind away, it is preferable to commence with sand, and finish with emery on a smooth stone; if the edges are not thus ground down, they should have the sharp angles, which are really dangerous, removed by a fine file, which should be moistened with oil of turpentine or camphene, as this liquid has an extraordinary effect in increasing the action of the file upon the glass, and at the same time protecting the steel instrument from wear.

Advantageous as cracks are in glass vessels whenever we wish to separate them into two parts, they are by no means desirable under other circumstances; and it is as important to know how to stop their progress, as to lead them forward. This is readily done in stout glass, by drilling a hole about half an inch in advance of the crack, which gradually passes on into it, and then its farther progress is arrested. Holes may be drilled in glass with a common drill and bow, the place being first marked with a file or flint, and the drill point kept wet with oil of turpentine. It is hardly necessary to state, that a crack existing in the neck of a decanter, and liable to be forced apart with the stopper, could not be arrested in its progress by such means. If necessary, a little emery powder may be used with oil of turpentine; and after the operation, the hole must be filled up with some cement; if


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the vessel is to be used for holding liquids, a little fresh slacked lime, moistened with equal parts of white of egg and water, may be used for this purpose.

The grinding of glass on a flat stone with sand or emery, and water, is often useful in making a bottle stand steadily; and by its means a wineglass with a broken foot may be turned to good account; for if as much of the stem as possible is knocked off, by striking it with the back of a knife, the remainder may be ground away so that the vessel will stand.

One of the most important Domestic Manipulations, although one of the most simple and easy, is the labelling of glass vessels. It is not too much to affirm, that scores of lives might have been saved if this had been attended to. In cases of accidental poisoning, we usually find that the victim has drunk from some bottle which has been put away without a label; and thus some corrosive liquid used for cleaning, or some poisonous lotion, has been inadvertently swallowed. One of the most ready modes of labeling glass, and other objects, consists in having at hand a sheet of paper, which has had spread on one side some gum water, mixed with half its weight of coarse brown sugar, and allowed to dry; this may be cut into labels, written on, and readily attached to glass by moistening with the tongue; the white margin of a sheet of postage stamps answers the purpose very well. If, however, acid liquids are used, or the vessel is placed in a damp situation, as a cellar, other means must be had recourse to. With a little practice, it is easy to write in a legible, though not very conspicuous manner, on glass, with a gun-flint, or with the sharp-edged fragments of common flint. In the laboratory what is called a writing diamond is used for this purpose; this should not be confounded with a glazier's diamond, which is used for dividing, and not scratching glass. We would here caution our readers against writing on glass with a diamond ring, &c., as the practice injures the jewel considerably; in the glazier's diamond, the natural edges of the crystal are used, which are not liable to injury as are the cut angles of a brilliant.

When glass vessels are exposed to damp, the best mode of writing on them is to prepare an ink for the purpose, by mixing the common cheap varnish, called Brunswick black, with half its weight of oil of turpentine, or what is the same thing, in a purer state, camphene; this should be kept in a closely corked bottle, and used with a broad nibbed quill pen; it soon dries, and though pale, is very distinct, and almost imperishable. If it is required much darker, about a quarter of an hour after it has been done, a little lampblack should be rubbed over it, with cotton or wadding, when it immediately becomes as black as common ink, and resists damp, and rubbing or wiping with either wet or dry cloths for a very long time. The same ink is equally advantageous for use with white earthenware; and although we have never had occasion to use such a mixture, there is no doubt that a little whiting mixed thin, with any common varnish, would furnish an equally useful ink for writing on black bottles.

> CHAPTER XII.
DECANTING, STRAINING, AND FILTERING OF LIQUIDS.

The decanting of liquids is, under ordinary circumstances, an operation sufficiently simple to require no explanation; but the ease and certainty with which it can be performed, depend entirely upon the form of the vessel from which the liquid is poured; the adhesion existing between liquids and solids giving rise to


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a tendency in the former to run down the outside of the vessel; and if the latter is nearly full, or very large in circumference, or the sides approach the perpendicular direction, this accident almost always occurs. The difficulty of returning a glass of wine to the decanter, or of pouring from one full tumbler into another, are well known examples of this inconvenience.

Advantage may, however, be taken of the adhesion of liquids to solids, and by it the former may be led into the required direction. This cannot be better illustrated than by a description of the means by which a glass of wine may be returned, without spilling, to the decanter. If a teaspoon is dipped into the wine, so as to become wetted with it, and then held perpendicularly with the bowl downwards, and the point over, but not touching, the entrance into the decanter, and the edge of the glass be made to touch the back of the spoon, it will be found, on inclining the former, that the wine, having a perpendicular solid body to adhere to and run down, will do so in preference to trickling along the oblique outer surface of the wineglass; and in this mode a liquid may be poured steadily out of any similiar vessel with so little disturbance as not to agitate any sediment that may exist in it. In the laboratory of the chemist, a piece of glass rod is usually employed for this purpose; but a spoon, or pencil, or any similiar substance having a surface capable of being wetted by the liquid, answers equally well.

If, however, the vessel out of which it is wished to decant is large, very full, or the sides, on pouring, are nearly perpendicular, the plan is not successful; thus, it could not be employed in aiding the transfer of the liquid from one full tumbler to another. Even this may be accomplished without the aid of a funnel, or without spilling, by preventing the adhesion of the liquid to the edge or side of the vessel out of which it is poured, which may be readily done by greasing the rim, when it will be found quite practicable to pour out of a nearly full tumbler without spilling.

In many instances, the employment of a syphon in decanting will be found very advantageous, particularly when the containing vessel is large, and cannot be readily moved, or when there is any sediment which it is desirable not to disturb. The most simple form of this instrument consists of a tube, bent as in Fig. 1, with one leg shorter than the other; this may be made of glass, pewter, or, in fact, of any kind of stiff tubing that will retain its form--a piece of gutta percha pipe, carefully bent by a moderate warmth, whilst a piece of stout cord is in the interior to prevent the sides closing together, answers very well. Before use, the syphon must be filled with liquor; this is best accomplished by turning it upside down, with the opening to the short leg raised on a level with that of the long one, when the liquid should be poured into the former. When both legs are filled, they should be closed with the fingers; the shorter leg introduced into the liquid it is wished to draw off; and the opening of the longer leg brought to a lower level than that of the shorter, and on removing the fingers the liquid will flow as in Fig. 1, until it is below the level of the short leg. If the syphon is made of small tubing, or is lessened at


[Illustration: An illustration of a syphon used in decanting.]




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the opening so as not to exceed one quarter of an inch in diameter, there will be no occasion to close the end of more than one leg with the finger, as the liquid will not flow when it is brought to the proper position unless both orifices are open; and thus the necessity of plunging the finger into the liquid is obviated, and the syphon can also be used with a narrow-necked bottle, into which the hand could not be passed.

To do away with the necessity of filling the syphon before use, the instrument is usually made with a sucking tube, as in Fig. 2; in this case, all that is requisite is, to introduce the short leg, close the opening to the long one, and by the action of the mouth, draw up the liquid until both legs are full, when on removing the finger, the stream will flow. A very ingenious syphon of this kind is described by the German chemist Mohr; it is thus constructed:--Take a long Eau de Cologne bottle, and, with a file and turpentine, make a deep notch across, about an inch and a half from the bottom; then, with a charcoal point or pastile, or hot iron, produce a crack, and cut off the bottom, grinding it smoothly; then take a tube bent at an angle of forty-five degrees, and, by means of a good cork, perforated with a rat-tail rasp, fit it tightly in the bottom of the bottle, and add also another piece of tubing for a suction tube; the whole will then have the appearance represented in Fig. 3, and will form an exceedingly useful, and very convenient syphon.

[Illustration: An illustration of a sucking tube from a syphon.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a syphon described by the German chemist Mohr.]

In emptying large stone bottles or carboys, the following plan may be had recourse to:--Perforate a sound cork with two openings by a rat-tail rasp, and fit, air-tight, two tubes bent as in Fig. 4. On blowing through the upper, the liquid will be forced to ascend and run over the bend of the other, which will then act as a syphon. This plan is exceedingly useful in emptying carboys of corrosive liquids, as oil of vitriol, &c.; and if all the joints are--as they should be--air-tight, the flow may be arrested by closing the upper tube with the finger. In the figure the outer leg of the syphon is shortened to save space; in practice it must be of sufficient length to be lower than the inner leg within the vessel.

[Illustration: An illustration of a syphon used to empty large stone bottles or carboys.]

If a syphon is required frequently for decanting the same kind of liquid, it is found troublesome to be constantly filling it before each time of using; this trouble is obviated by the use of an instrument


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formed with legs of equal length, which are turned up at the ends, as in Fig. 5; this having been filled, may be hung up in the erect position, and the liquid will not escape, but on plunging one end into a liquid, it will be found immediately to flow from the other, provided that the latter is below the level of the surface of the liquid.

[Illustration: An illustration of an instrument for syphoning, formed with legs of equal length, which are turned up at the ends.]

The operations of straining and filtering are frequently required in domestic manipulations, and the apparatus employed usually consists of sieves and a jelly-bag. As, in many other instances, it will be found advantageous to import several contrivances from the laboratory to the kitchen, one of the most useful (because most simple) strainers consists of a square frame, formed of four pieces of wood nailed together at the corners, with a piece of calico, linen, or canvas, of suitable fineness, tacked to the four sides; this strainer is particularly useful in separating any solid substance--as the residue in making wines--or if grated potatoes are put on one made of coarse cloth, the starch can be readily washed through, leaving the useless portion on the strainer; the cloth should not be tacked very loosely, as it bags down when any substance is put on it, and the liquid runs away below from the centre. This strainer is a most useful one; it is readily made, of any degree of fineness, and of any size; and it also possesses the great advantage, that, if necessary, the tacks fastening the cloth can easily be withdrawn, when the substance remaining can be rolled up in the cloth, and tightly squeezed, to express the last portions of liquid.

In cases where a finer filtration is required than can be obtained by means of a cloth, as in cleaning turbid wine or spirit, the use of filtering-paper is recommended. This paper is merely a stouter kind of blotting-paper, thick varieties of which answer very well for domestic purposes; it is most simply used by taking a square piece, folding it into half--by bringing the two opposite edges together--and then folding the oblong so obtained across its length; by this means a small square is obtained, one quarter the original size,which may be opened into a hollow cup, having three thicknesses of paper on one side, which may be opened into a hollow cup, having three thicknesses of paper on one side, and one on the other; this is to be placed with the point downwards, in a funnel, and the liquid poured in; and as soon as the pores of the paper are expanded by the moisture, it will be found to flow through perfectly clear; care must be taken in making the filter, not to finger it much where the two foldings cross each other, as a hole is readily made at that part, and the filter spoiled. The objection to this simple contrivance is, that from its flat sides applying themselves closely to those of the funnel, the flow of the liquid is impeded, and is, therefore, slow. This effect may be obviated by the use of the plaited filter, the construction of which we will endeavor to describe. A square piece of filtering, or stout blotting-paper is to be doubled, and the oblong so obtained is to be again folded in half, when if the last fold is opened, it will have the appearance of Fig. 6. From the corners b b, folds are to be creased in the direction towards a, but not reaching it for half an inch; these are indicated by the dotted lines, which divide the double paper into four triangles, each of which is to be again folded into eighths, and care must be taken that


[Illustration: An illustration of how to fold filtering or blotting paper to filter liquids.]




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all the folds are made the same way, that is, projecting to the same side of the paper. When complete, the doubled and creased paper will appear as Fig. 7. Now divide each eighth into half, by a fold in the opposite direction to those previously made, when it will be found that the whole will readily fold up like a paper fan; the projecting loose ends which are formed by the corners b, should be cut off, and the double sides separated for the first time by blowing them apart, when the whole may be readily opened out as in Fig. 8. In making this filter, which takes a much less time than to follow the description, two precautions are requisite. The folds should be made at once with one firm pressure, and not with a series of rubbings; and all the creases should stop short of the middle, otherwise a hole will be made at that point, long before the filter is completed. The advantages of this filter are that it exposes a large surface for the liquid to pass through; and from its only being in contact with the funnel where the angles project, the current flows away readily.

[Illustration: An illustration of how the filtering or blotting paper should look once the folding is complete.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a piece of paper that resembles a paper coffee filter.]

The best means for filtration of water, and the construction of water filters, will be treated of when we speak of the "domestic manipulation" connected with that liquid.

> CHAPTER XIII. THE MANUFACTURE AND USE OF CEMENTS.

THE term cement, includes all those substances employed for the purpose of causing the adhesion of two or more bodies, whether originally separate, or divided by an accidental fracture. As the substances that are required to be connected together are exceedingly various, and differ very much in their properties as to texture, &c. &c., and as the conditions under which they are placed, with regard to heat and moisture, are also exceedingly variable, a number of cements, possessed of very different properties, are required; for a cement that answers admirably under one set of circumstances, may be perfectly useless in others. A vast number of cements are known and used in the various arts; but they may all be referred to a few classes, and our object in this paper will be to describe the manufacture and use of the best of each class, and also to state what are the general principles upon which the success or failure of cementing usually depends.

The different parts of a solid are held together by an attraction between their several particles, which is termed the attraction of cohesion, or cohesive attraction. The amount of this varies with the substances; thus, the cohesion of the particles of iron to one another is enormously great, whilst that between those of chalk is but small. This attraction acts only when the particles are in the closest possible contact; even air must not be between them. The attraction of cohesion which takes place between the parts of the same substance, must not be confounded with that of adhesion, which is the attraction of different substances to one another; for example, the particles of a piece of wood are united by cohesive attraction, whilst the union of glue and wood to each other depends on adhesive attraction. And it is important that this distinction be borne in mind, for, in almost all cases, the cohesion between the particles of the cement is very much less than the adhesion of the


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cement to other bodies; and if torn apart, the connected joint gives way--not by the loosening of the adhesion--but by the layer of cement splitting down the centre. Hence the important rule, that the less cement in a joint, the stronger it is. Domestic manipulators usually reverse this, by letting as much cement as possible remain in the joint, which is, therefore, necessarily a weak one. A thick, nearly solid cement, which cannot be pressed out of the joint, is always inferior to a thinner one, of which merely a connecting film remains between the united surfaces.

Having thus mentioned the general principles that ought always to be borne in mind, we will now proceed to describe the manufacture of some of the more useful cements, and their mode of use.

Mouth Glue affords a very convenient means of uniting papers, and other small light objects; it is made by dissolving by the aid of heat, pure glue, or gelatine, with about one quarter or one-third of its weight of coarse brown sugar, in as small a quantity of boiling water as possible; this, when perfectly liquid, should be cast into thin cakes on a flat surface very slightly oiled, and as it cools cut up into pieces of a convenient size. When required for use one end may be moistened by the mouth, and is then ready to be rubbed on any substances it may be wished to join; a piece kept in the desk or work-box is very convenient.

Paste is usually made by rubbing up flour with cold water and boiling; if a little alum is mixed before boiling it is much improved, being less clammy, working more freely in the brush and thinner; a less quantity is required, and it is therefore stronger. If required in large quantity, as for papering rooms, it may be made by mixing one quartern of flour, one quarter pound of alum and a little warm water; when mixed, the requisite quantity of boiling water should be poured on whilst the mixture is being stirred. Paste is only adapted to cementing paper; when used it should be spread on one side of the paper, which should then be folded with the pasted side inwards, and allowed to remain a few minutes before being opened and used; this swells the paper, and permits its being more smoothly and securely attached. Kept for a few days, paste becomes mouldy, and after a short time putrid; this inconvenience may be obviated by the use of--

Permanent Paste, made by adding to each half-pint of flour paste without alum, fifteen grains of corrosive sublimate, previously rubbed to powder in a mortar, the whole to be well mixed; this, if prevented from drying, by being kept in a covered pot, remains good any length of time, and is therefore convenient; but unfortunately it is extremely poisonous, though its excessively nauseous taste would prevent its being swallowed accidentally; it possesses the great advantage of not being liable to the attacks of insects.

Liquid Glue is made by dissolving shell-lac in water, by boiling it with borax, which possesses the peculiar property of causing the solution of the resinous lac. This preparation is convenient for its cheapness and freedom from smell, but it gives way if exposed to long-continued damp, which that made with naphtha resists.

Of the use of common glue, very little need be said; it should also be prepared in a glue-pot or double vessel to prevent its being burned, which injures it very materially. The objection to the use of this contrivance is, that it renders it impossible to heat the glue in the inner vessel to the boiling point; this inconvenience can be obviated by employing in the outer vessel some liquid, which


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boils at a higher temperature than pure water, such as saturated solution of salt. This boils at 224° Fahr., 12° above the heat of boiling water, and enables the glue in the inner vessel to be heated to a much higher temperature than when pure water is employed. If a saturated solution of nitre is used, the temperature rises still higher.

Waterproof Cements are very numerous; a very good one for uniting china and glass will be found elsewhere. It should be stated, however, that the gum ammoniac should be also dissolved in a small quantity of spirit. Mastic, used instead of ammoniac, makes a clearer cement. This mixture, under various fanciful titles, is usually sold at a most exorbitant rate.

Lime and Egg Cement is frequently made by moistening the edges to be united, with white of egg, dusting on some lime from a piece of muslin, and bringing the edges into contact. A much better mode is to slake some freshly burned lime with a small quantity of boiling water; this occasions it to fall into a very fine dry powder, if excess of water has not been added. The white of egg used should be intimately and thoroughly mixed, by beating, with an equal bulk of water, and the slaked lime added to the mixture, so as to form a thin paste, which should be used speedily, as it soon sets. This is a valuable cement, possessed of great strength, and capable of withstanding boiling water. Cements made with lime and blood, scraped cheese, or curd, may be regarded as inferior varieties of it. Cracked vessels, of earthenware and glass, may often be usefully, though not ornamentally repaired by white lead spread on strips of calico, and secured with bands of twine. But in point of strength, all ordinary cements yield the palm to Jeffery's Patented Marine Glue, a compound of India-rubber, shell-lac, and coal-tar naphtha. When applied to china or glass, the substances should be cautiously made hot enough to melt the glue, which should then be rubbed on the edges so as to become fluid, and the parts brought into contact immediately. When well applied, the mended stem of a common tobacco-pipe will break at any other part, in preference to the junction. The color of the glue unfortunately prevents its being used.

The Red Cement, which is employed by instrument-makers for cementing glass to metals, and which is very cheap, and exceedingly useful for a variety of purposes, is made by melting five parts of black resin, one part of yellow wax, and then stirring in, gradually, one part of red ochre or Venetian red, in fine powder, and previously well dried. This cement requires to be melted before use, and it adheres better if the objects to which it is applied are warmed. A soft cement, of a somewhat similiar character, may be found useful for covering the corks of preserved fruit, and other bottles, and it is made by melting yellow wax with an equal quantity of resin, or of common turpentine, (not oil of turpentine, but the resin), using the latter for a very soft cement, and stirring in, as before, some dried Venetian red. Bearing in mind our introductory remarks, it will be seen that the uniting broken substances with a thick cement is disadvantageous, the object being to bring the surfaces as closely together as possible. As an illustration of a right and a wrong way of mending, we will suppose a plaster of Paris figure broken; the wrong way to mend it is by a thick paste of plaster, which makes, not a joint, but a botch. The right way to mend it, is by means of some well-made carpenter's glue, which, being absorbed into the porous plaster, leaves merely a film covering the two


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surfaces. If well done, the figure is stronger there than elsewhere.

One useful substance is termed mastic cement, which is used for making a superior coating to inside walls, and which must not be confounded with the resin mastic. It is made by mixing twenty parts of well-washed and sifted sharp sand, with two parts of litharge, and one of freshly burned and slaked quick-lime, in fine dry powder. This is made into a putty, by mixing with linseed oil; it sets in a few hours, having the appearance of light stone; and we mention it as it may be frequently employed with advantage in repairing broken stone-work (as stairs) by filling up the missing parts. The employment of Roman cement, plaster, &c., for masonry work, hardly comes within the limits of Domestic Manipulation.

> CHAPTER XIV.
DIVIDING, POWDERING, GRINDING, ETC.

THE operations of chopping, powdering, grinding, &c., are so frequently required in cooking, and the other branches of domestic economy, as to render any description of their utility wholly unnecessary; and we may therefore confine ourselves to describing the best means of accomplishing the object desired. Powdering is usually performed by the aid of the pestle and mortar. Most of the works on Cookery recommend the use of a marble mortar; this material is about one of the worst that could be selected for the purpose. In the first place, it is expensive; secondly, it is rapidly corroded, even by the weak acids used for food; thirdly, it is readily stained by oily substances; fourthly, it is absorptive of strong flavors, imparting them readily to the next substance pounded; and lastly, it is brittle, and even if not broken, is not calculated to withstand much wear. By far the best material for the purpose is the Wedgewood ware; mortars made of it are cheaper, cleaner in use, and stronger than those of marble, and are not corroded by acids or alkalies--their pre-eminence is so great, that they are invariably used by druggists.

The act of powdering requires great tact and practice to perform it neatly and rapidly. After the object has been broken into small pieces by blows from the pestle, a grinding action is required; this should at first be given by striking the fragments, not in the centre of the mortar, but towards the side furthest from the operator; the pestle, by this means, grinds over them in its descent to the centre, and much more rapidly accomplishes their division than if mere blows are given. After the object has been divided to a certain extent, blows are entirely useless, and a grinding in circles becomes requisite; if the circle is confined to one part of the mortar, the same portions get rubbed over and over again, the others escaping; this is avoided by constantly and regularly altering the size of the circles. If they are commenced in the centre, they should gradually increase in size until the sides are reached, and then contract again, and so on. By this means the whole of the powder is brought under the action of the pestle, and the operation is much quicker than if performed at random. One great fault usually committed in powdering, is the endeavor to operate on too large a quantity of material at one time. The operation is much more rapidly conducted if small portions are taken;


[Illustration: An illustration of a lidded glass jar with a bag of lawn inside it used as a filter.]




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and if the material is tough, and contains much fibrous matter, the process may be very much shortened by removing those parts which are sufficiently powdered, by sifting from time to time through a sieve. This may be objectionable, however, from the fine powder escaping into the air; in this case, the following contrivance will be found useful: A cylindrical tea-canister of the requisite size is taken, with a loosely fitting lid (or if tight, the lid may be enlarged by four slits being made partly up the sides); a bag of lawn is dropped into the canister, the top being turned over the edge; the powder to be sifted is put in a bag, the lid put on, and, by tapping and shaking, the finest portions pass into the canister without any escaping into the air--a point of very considerable importance where the powder is irritating or expensive.

All vegetable, and many mineral substances, are much more readily powdered after having been thoroughly dried; so far is this process carried, that many drugs are dried so as to lose fifteen per cent. of their weight before powdering. After drying, substances should not be exposed to the air, but, unless they are of such a nature as to be softened by heat, are better operated on whilst still warm. Flints are more readily powdered by being heated to redness and quenched in cold water; charcoal, for tooth powder, whilst still warm from drying. Gum can only be powdered whilst perfectly dry. Camphor, which is with great difficulty powdered alone, yields readily if a drop or two of spirit is poured on it. Substances which clog together and cake under the pestle, are not uncommon; to these it is sometimes requisite to add sand, which may afterwards be separated--this prevents the clogging; but its use is often impracticable. Lime, if required in very fine powder, for dusting over plants to kill slugs, &c., is readily obtained by slaking it, when fresh burned, with boiling water; when, if too much water is not used, it falls into an exceedingly fine powder.

Sal-ammoniac, and some other saline bodies, are most readily powdered by dissolving them in as small a quantity of boiling water as possible, and stirring the solution rapidly as the water is boiled away, or as the solution cools. Before dismissing the pestle and mortar, we may allude to its use in mixing powders together, although a much more ready mode of doing this is with a sieve. Two or more powders stirred together and passed two or three times through a sieve, are much more intimately mixed, than if rubbed for a long time in a mortar. Metals cannot be divided in the mortar; the most convenient mode of proceeding, if they are fusible under a white heat, is to melt them, and pour them whilst liquid into a pail of water, which should be full to avoid any spluttering, and the hotter the metal, the more filmy the particles. It is scarcely requisite to state, that the metal should be poured in a circle, so as not to collect at one place.

Chopping is usually performed in the kitchen, with a large common knife; but is more speedily done by some of the improved contrivances similar to the following:--The chopping-board should be made of hard wood, with the grain at right angles to the surface of the board,


[Illustration: An illustration of an X-shaped chopping tool with a long handle.]




[Illustration: An illustration of an S-shaped chopping tool with a long handle.]




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by which it is rendered much more durable, than if they are parallel to it. The chopping-knives should be fixed at right angles to the handles, and may be either of the preceding patterns. If a large quantity of material has to be acted on, we would recommend a board as above, not less than three inches thick, and smooth on both sides, so that either may be used, of the requisite size--say eighteen inches or two feet in diameter. On this should stand a loose bottomless tub, to confine the materials, and the whole resting on the floor, should be used with a knife, sufficiently long in the handle to be employed by a person standing erect, and it should have a small cross-bar for the hands, as shown in Fig. 12.

Small chopping-knives are sold, consisting of three blades riveted together; and a very convenient one is made by fastening, at convenient distances, a number of flat circular disks, sharpened at the edges to a central axis with a handle at each end.

Many substances, such as stale bread, dried herbs, &c., may be very conveniently powdered by rubbing them through a wire sieve, of the requisite degree of fineness. Herbs intended for use in this way, should be dried as rapidly as possible, without being scorched, in small heaps, before the fire; parsley and others done in this way, may be powdered, retaining their bright green color and flavor, both of which are preserved if they are corked tightly in bottles, and kept in a dry, dark cupboard. The use of waxed paper to preserve dried powders in, or for tying them down in jars, or generally as a very good substitute for bladder, will often be found convenient. It is readily made by laying a sheet of smooth stout paper on a warm iron plate, as the top of a kitchen oven; on this place the thin tissue or other paper to be waxed; put a piece of wax on it, and as it melts, rub it over, spreading it evenly. One end of a cork, covered with two thicknesses of linen, answers very well for a rubber. If a hot plate is not at hand, the sheet of paper may be held before the fire, and rubbed over, as it warms, with the cut edge of a cake of white wax; but this requires the co-operation of two persons.

[Illustration: An illustration of a bottomless, wooden tub and a long handled knife.]

> CHAPTER XV.
KNOTS, PACKAGES, PARCELS, ETC.

THE poet Crabbe, speaking of the writing of the rustics, signing his parish registers, says--

"Tis strange that men Who guide the plough should fail to guide the pen! For half a mile the furrows even lie; For half an inch the letters stand awry."

A parallel remark might with equal justice be made on the gentler sex, who, after exercising a degree of tact, neatness, and tasteful invention, that the self-styled "lords of the creation" might in vain hope to rival, in the formation of a piece of needlework, knitting, netting, or crochet, are, for the most part, totally unable, when it is finished, to tie it up so as to make a decent parcel; ladies' packages are, in fact, the opprobrium of the sex--the annoyance of all carriers, who


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have any thing to do with their conveyance, and the torment of their owners; the cords are certain to become loose, the knots are sure to slip, except when a slip-knot is requisite, and then it is a fixture! It is in the hope that we may be instrumental in improving this state of things, that we are induced to devote this chapter to Knots, Packages, Parcels, &c., and we shall at once lay before our fair readers a method of tying a parcel neatly and securely, and at the same time affording facilities for releasing the contents without destroying the string by cutting it away--a too ordinary practice, especially where time is an object.

The most simple purpose for which a knot is required, is the fastening together of two pieces of string or cord: the knot selected for this purpose should possess two important properties;--it should be secure from slipping, and of small size. Nothing is more common than to see two cords attached together in a manner similar to that shown in Fig. 13. It is scarcely possible to imagine a worse knot; it is large and clumsy, and as the cords do not mutually press each other, it is certain to slip if pulled with any great force. In striking contrast to this--the worst of all, we place one of the best; namely, the knot usually employed by netters, and which is called by sailors "the sheet-bend." It is readily made by bending one of the pieces of cord into a loop (a b, Fig. 14), which is to be held between the finger and thumb of the left hand; the other cord c is passed through the loop from the farther side, then round behind the two legs of the loop, and lastly, under itself, the loose end coming out at d. In the smallness of its size, and the firmness with which the various parts grip together, this knot surpasses every other: it can, moreover, be tied readily when one of the pieces, viz. a b, is exceedingly short; in common stout twine, less than an inch being sufficient to form the loop. The above method of forming it is the simplest to describe, although not the most rapid in practice; as it may be made in much less time by crossing the two ends of cord (a b, Fig. 15) on the tip of the fore-finger of the left hand, and holding them firmly by the left thumb, which covers the crossing; then the part c is to be wound round the thumb in a loop as shown in the figure, and passed between the two ends, behind a and before b; the knot is completed by turning the end b downwards in front of d, passing it through the loop, securing it under the left thumb, and tightening the whole by pulling d. As formed in this mode, it is more rapidly made than almost any other knot; and, as before stated, it excels all in security


[Illustration: An illustration of a knot that secures two pieces or string or cord.]




[Illustration: An illustration of how to start a sheet-bend knot.]




[Illustration: An illustration of an alternate way to tie a sheet-bend knot.]




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and compactness, so firmly do the various turns grip each other, that after having been tightly pulled, it is very difficult to untie; this the only drawback to its usefulness, and in this respect it is inferior to the reef-knot, Fig. 16, which is made in precisely the same manner that a shoe-string is tied, only pulling out the ends instead of leaving them as bows. The only precaution necessary in making a reef-knot is, to observe that the two parts of each string are on the same side of the loop; if they are not, the ends (and the bows if any are formed) are at right angles to the cords; the knot is less secure, and is termed by sailors a granny-knot. Other knots are occasionally used to connect two cords, but it is unnecessary to describe them, as every useful purpose may be answered by those above-mentioned.

[Illustration: An illustration of a reef-knot.]

The binding knot (Figs. 17 and 18) is exceedingly useful in connecting broken sticks, rods, &c., but some difficulty is often experienced in fastening it at the finish; if, however, the string is placed over the part to be united, as shown in Fig. 17, and the long end b, used to bind around the rod, and finally passed through the loop a, as shown in Fig. 18, it is readily secured by pulling d, when the loop is drawn in, and fastens the end of the cord.

[Illustration: An illustration of a broken stick or rod and how to begin tying a binding knot.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a completed binding knot.]

For fastening a cord to any cylindrical object, one of the most useful knots is the clove hitch, which, although exceedingly simple and most easily made, is one of the most puzzling knots to the uninitiated. There are several modes of forming it, the most simple being perhaps as follows:--make two loops, precisely similar in every respect as a and b, Fig. 19, then bring b in front of a, so as to make both loops correspond, and pass them over the object to be tied, tightening the ends; if this is properly done, the knot will not slip, although surrounding a tolerably smooth cylindrical object, as a pillar, pole, &c. This knot is employed by surgeons in reducing dislocations of the last joint of the thumb, and by sailors in great part of the standing rigging. The loop which is formed when a cable is passed around a post or tree to secure a vessel near shore, is fastened by what sailors term two half hitches, which is simply a clove hitch made by the end of the rope which is passed around the post or tree, and then made to describe the clove hitch around that part of itself which is tightly strained.

[Illustration: An illustration of a rope/cord with two loops in it, called a clove hitch.]

From the tying of knots we may pass on to the tying over of bottles, preserves jars, &c.; the object with which this


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operation is performed is either to prevent the excess of air or the escape or entrance of moisture; the act itself is so very simple as to require no explanation; but a few words may be said on the choice of material, which should be varied so as to suit the exigencies of each particular case. When a vessel of spirit is to be tied over, leather is frequently selected--a very erroneous practice, as the vapor of spirit passes readily through that substance, but cannot penetrate bladder, which should be invariably used for the purpose. So effectually is spirit confined by bladder, that when weak spirits are put into bladders or into vessels tied over with bladder, and allowed to remain some time, they are strengthened, as the vapor of the water passes away, that of the spirit being retained.

Bladder or other animal membranes of the same nature, in a moist and flaccid state, are usually selected for tying over preserves and jams, for which they are well adapted. Many persons place a thin piece of brandied paper in the jar resting on the jam, in addition to tying it down; this assists in excluding air and preventing mouldiness, but we have found a piece of very thin paper moistened with white of egg much more efficacious. The thin sheet-lead used for lining the interior of tea-chests, or stout tin-foil, is very advantageously used in tying down vessels containing specimens of natural history preserved in spirits, as they effectually prevent the escape of the latter for a long series of years. The plan usually pursued is to tie the cork over first with a single bladder, then with the metal, and finally with a second piece of bladder, which is afterwards covered with a coat of black paint.

The tying up of parcels in paper is an operation which is seldom neatly performed by persons whose occupations have not given them great facilities for constant practice. Whether the paper be wrapped round the objects, as is the case usually when it is much larger than sufficient to enclose them, or merely folded over itself, as is done by druggists, who cut the paper to the required size, it is important that the breadth of the paper should be no longer than sufficient to enable it to be folded over the ends of the object enclosed, without passing over the opposite side; it is impossible to make a neat or close parcel with paper which is too broad; excess in length may be readily disposed of by wrapping it round; but excess of breadth should be cut away. With regard to turning in the ends the mode adopted by grocers is the best. The most common cause of failure in parcels is their being badly corded; we will, therefore, (however unnecessary the description of so simple a performance may appear to those already acquainted with it), describe the most readily acquired mode of cording.

Let a single knot be made in the end of the cord, which is then passed round the box or parcel. This knotted end is now tied by a single hitch round the middle of the cord (Fig. 20), and the whole pulled tight. The cord itself is then carried at right angles round the end of the parcel, and where it crosses the transverse cord on the bottom of the box (Fig. 21), it should (if the parcel is heavy, and requires to be firmly secured) be passed over the cross cord, then back underneath it, and pulled tightly, then over itself; lastly, under the cross cord, and on around the other end of the box. When it reaches the top it must be secured by


[Illustration: An illustration of a box with rope tied around it.]




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passing it under at that part of the cord which runs lengthways (a, Fig. 20), pulling it very tight, and fastening it by two half hitches round itself. The great cause of parcels becoming loose is the fact of the cord being often fastened to one of the transverse parts (as b, Fig. 20), instead of the piece running lengthways, and in this case it invariably becomes loose. The description may perhaps be rendered clearer by the aid of the figures, which exhibit the top and bottom of a box corded as described. The cords, however, are shown in a loose state to allow their arrangements to be perceived more easily.

[Illustration: An illustration of a box with rope tied around it.]

> CHAPTER XVI.

IN spite of our receipts and our philosophy, the briskness of the fire, the skill of our cook, the excellence of the oven, the bright array of pots, kettles, pans, moulds, griddles and gridirons, and the presiding genius of even a half Fortunatus sort of a purse, or the most rigid scale and measure of economy, one grand puzzle besets alike all kitchens--the difficulty of really getting the ingredients on which the mystery of food manufacture is to be exercised.

The very water we have to cook with, is crowded with millions of monsters--things with two heads and no heads, with countless legs and no legs, with jaws and pincers and claws, and most wonderful springy tails; in some water well nigh enough of them to make a sort of soup, to say nothing of the chalk, lime, iron, and a host of other impurities.

The sugar, if it be brown, without taking note of such items as a little lead, a good deal of sand, some clay and flour, is pretty nearly as thick as it can hold of chips of cane and swarms of mites.

Our tea, if green, is painted and polished with Prussian blue, turmeric powder, and China clay, and is a mixture of all the leaves that the wonderful industry and ingenuity of the Chinese, can accomplish; we have old tea-leaves dried and twisted up, and colored and glazed, and sold for black and green; we have even gunpowder made up of dust and sand, and gum, faced as they call it with plumbago.

Coffee, fragrant, and refreshing, has almost become a myth; we may have pneumatic coffee-pots that will not let the finest dust pass through their strainers, French coffee-pots, German coffee-pots, and all kinds of traditional directions for the manufacture: but not one of them can help us to make coffee, unless as good old Mrs. Glass would say, "we have first got our coffee;" and what with foreign roguery and home roguery the chances are twenty to one against us, that the brown powder we are at so much pains with, once flourished at the end of a blue flower, on a long stalk under our own hedges, being known where it grew under the name of wild endive, christened in trade chicory, and being in reality a tall and aristocratic sort of dandelion, possessing too the medicinal properties of dandelion, and none whatever of the properties of coffee. But even if people be taken with a liking for this dandelion tea instead of coffee, they cannot have it pure. The chicory itself is far too costly to content the avaricious roguery of a number of dealers,


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and so it is adulterated with roasted corn, parsnips, manglewurzel, beans, Egyptian lupin seed, biscuit powder, burnt sugar, roasted carrots, oak bark, tan, acorns, mahogany sawdust, and no little sand, the result of the original dirt judiciously left as a make-weight upon the root of the chicory itself.

Mustard can scarcely be said to have even the color of mustard, for it is colored with turmeric, and what passes for mustard is in many a case little more than mere husks and flour.

Pepper is messed up with wheat flour, mustard-seed husks, sago-meal, pea flour, and ware-house sweepings; nor does it fare better with food for invalids, oatmeal being mingled with far less digestive barley-meal at half the price. Arrow-root (which it should be understood is the produce of under-ground branches or bulbs of the maranta plant, growing in the West and East Indies, having gained its name of arrow-root from the belief that it was a remedy against poisoned arrows,) is to the utmost economized; and though its purity is often of great importance to the invalid, there is for the most part sold instead, sago-flour, tapioca-flour, and most commonly of all, potato-starch.

Milk and bread are not so much adulterated. But the milk, partly by the kind of keep of the cows, partly by a little careful skimming, and in a multitude of cases by the liberal aid of the pump, is duly thinned. Flour and bread, of old mixed with plaster of Paris, ground bones, and potato-starch--thanks to the cheapening of pure materials, has come to content itself with alum only. But this running account of roguery, except for its curiousness, would be of little use without a few hints, as to partial detection and prevention.

As to tea, it is best to be content with black tea alone.

For sugar, the best advice is--if you like to pay for dirt, and to mix it with your preserves, puddings, and pastry, and choose to believe that sugar which moistens even the thick paper they place it in, and which looks dark, smells strong, and sticks to your fingers, is richer in sweetening than clear sparkling white sugar, out of which none of the sweetening but all of the dirt has been washed--then buy brown sugar.

"Please tell the people over the way," said a gentleman, "that I would take it as a particular favor, if in future they will send me the cow's hairs on one plate, and the butter on another, and I can mix them myself as I want them." Such is our advice as to coffee. It seems beyond the reach of average human honesty to sell it pure. The chicory is so fragrant--so wholesome--such an improvement on the flavor of the Arabian berry, and withal so much cheaper, that mixed it must be. We say, therefore, Buy your coffee in the berry, raw; your chances are at all events fifty to one better of having coffee only. Roast and grind it for yourselves, and, if you like chicory or dandelion, endive, or any other weed with it, why, buy the roots, scorch them and grate them, and, like the man with the hairs in his butter, mix them to your taste. But do not, unless you choose to cheat your stomachs, buy ground coffee. A mill will soon pay for itself; and at all events never purchase canistered or bottled coffee, for in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred an additional dose of dust is made to pay for the tin or glass.*

*It may not be amiss to show how tea is made in China, and coffee amongst the Turks.

The art of making tea consists in pouring the water on and off immediately, so as to get the flavor.

Coffee-making is a more intricate affair, and cannot be fully conveyed in a receipt. The coffee must be slowly roasted, not burnt, and brought only to an amber brown; it must be roasted day by day, and reduced by pounding to an impalpable powder. In making it, two opposite and apparently incompatible


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ends are to be secured--strength and flavor. To obtain the first, it must be boiled; by boiling, the second is lost. The difficulty is surmounted by a double process,--one thorough cooking, one slight one; by the first a strong infusion is obtained, by the second that infusion is flavored. Thus a large pot with coffee-lees stands simmering by the fire; this is the sherbet. When a cup is wanted, the pounded coffee is put in the little tin or copper pan, and placed on the embers; it fumes for a moment, then the sherbet is poured on; in a few seconds the froth (caïmah) rises; presently an indication that it is about to boil is made manifest, when the coffee is instantly taken from the fire, carried into the apartment, turned into the cup, and drunk."-- Urquhart's Pillars of Hercules.

As to water--every one knows that plumbers make the bottoms of the cisterns thicker than the sides, because the water eats the lead away; hard water does so more than soft, and water from the same source more at the some times than others. Lead, as the phrase is, accumulates in the system, so that ever so little, taken day by day, at length sums up to a poisonous dose sufficient to mar the health. The remedy for this mischief is simply to have the pipes made of gutta percha. Many spring waters, though of course free from the animal impurities, abound still more in the medicinal. To render such waters fit for healthful use, some process of purification is absolutely essential, and such purification very perceptively improves both their cooking and washing properties.

Ordinary filters certainly free water from a considerable quantity of dirt, but not from the medicinal ingredients, nor even from all the animalculæ, some of which, though quite visible as monsters with a microscope, nevertheless find their way through the filter. One of the simplest processes of purification, if people will only take the trouble to perform it--and it is surely worth it for the increase of comfort and the advantage to health--is--for every forty gallons that the cistern holds to pour in one gallon of lime-water; this has the effect of throwing down from the water a large proportion of the chemical ingredients, and no small multitude of the animalculæ. Another method of purification is by long slow boiling, then allowing the water to cool, and filtering it. Some trouble no doubt there is in any such course; but pure water, like pure air, is essential to a life of health, and those who will not be at the trouble, must make up their minds to some degree of infirmity and unhappiness.

The subject of the Water-supply to large towns is one of the highest importance to the well-being of the community.

The quality of water for domestic purposes depends mainly upon its degree of hardness or softness; and this in its turn depends almost entirely upon the quantity of lime dissolved in some form or other in the water. It is found, upon experiment, that one gallon (weighing 70,000 grains) of pure water will not dissolve more than two grains of chalk, and so acquire two degrees of hardness; and that whenever more is contained in water, the excess is always owing to the presence of carbonic acid gas, which enables it to dissolve a much larger quantity. The practical part of our subject depends on this fact; for if by any means we can get rid of the carbonic acid, the dissolved chalk is necessarily precipitated, and the hard water, unfit for culinary and domestic purposes, becomes soft, and well adapted to both these uses. Carbonic acid is in part expelled from water by heating it to the boiling point: a still larger quantity is got rid of after boiling for some few minutes, and nearly every trace disappears at the end of half an hour; and just in proportion as the carbonic acid gas is expelled, so does the chalk fall, rendering the water in the first instance turbid, and becoming deposited on the interior surface of kettles,


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where it forms the well-known rock of fur.

It has been found that water of 14 degrees of hardness lost two degrees when merely made to boil; boiling for five minutes reduced the hardness to 6 degrees; and for a quarter of an hour, to little more than 4 degrees. The practical application of this knowledge needs scarcely to be pointed out. Whenever a soft water is required, boil for several minutes before using. In making tea, for instance, the economy and general superiority of a soft water is well known. How many a young gentleman, with a smattering of science just enough to inform him that water gets no hotter however long or violently it is boiled, has laughed at his grandmother's antiquated notions, because she requested that the water might be made to boil thoroughly before the tea was made: the old lady could give no very satisfactory explanation of her prejudice, yet it was not the less a correct one.

Before going further in this matter, it may be stated that there are some waters in which the lime is dissolved in the form of gypsum (sulphate of lime): in these, the hardness is of a permanent character, and cannot be lessened by boiling. Tea made under such circumstances may be improved, either by the addition of a very small quantity of carbonate of soda, or the tea should be kept soaking for half an hour, under such circumstances as will retain the heat.

In washing, the use of hard water is, as is well known, extremely prejudicial. The explanation is exceedingly simple: every degree of hardness in a gallon of water destroys 10 grains of soap.

There is one practical matter of great importance, to which we wish to draw the attention of all concerned: it is the effect of boiling linen in hard water. If clothes are put into cold water, and then boiled the precipitation of chalk takes place on the clothes, and whatever coloring matter exists in the water goes down with the chalk, and also becomes attached to the linen, rendering it of that disagreeable and unremovable dirty hue which is so characteristic of certain laundries. If boiling is absolutely requisite for white fabrics, it should be done in water which has been boiled half an hour, allowed to stand, and then poured off from the sediment; otherwise, from the immediate precipitation of the chalk, the dirt is boiled in and thoroughly fixed to the fabric. A moment's consideration will convince any one, that a deposit similar to the fur in a tea-kettle cannot be expected to improve the appearance of white linen. Where clean rain water can be obtained, there is no objection to the boiling of clothes in it; as, being absolutely free from lime, no precipitation can take place. The use of soda in softening water employed in washing, is well known; but the remedy is not without its own evil: it weakens the fibre of the cloth, and unless it is much more thoroughly removed by rinsing than is usually the case, it occasions a very permanent yellow tinge when the cloth is heated.

> CHAPTER XVII.
BOILING, STEWING, ETC.

FROM considering the properties of hard and soft water, we pass by a natural transition to the employment of that liquid in culinary operations. In practice, nothing can at first sight appear more simple than the operation of boiling, whether it be confined to the mere heating of a liquid, or extended to the preparation of an article of food; yet it is one which involves chemical principles of a very high order, and which is by no


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means so simple a matter as it may be regarded at a cursory glance.

To trace the steps of the process from its commencement, let us imagine a vessel of water placed over the fire, and receiving constantly a supply of heat from that source; the effect is, that its temperature gradually rises from about 50° or 60°, the usual warmth of ordinary water, to 212°, the point at which boiling takes place; but before it reaches that height, a number of bubbles may be observed foaming on the sides of the vessel; these gradually increase in size, and when they become sufficiently buoyant, quit their position, rise to the surface, and escape; they consist of air previously dissolved in the water, and which is expelled by the increased heat. Water which has been boiled and allowed to become cold, without much exposure to the air, fails to reabsorb the quantity it previously contained, and consequently has its character somewhat altered. Thus, it freezes more readily than water which has not been boiled, in consequence of the air not having to be expelled in the act of solidifying, as is usually the case: hence, the ice from boiled water is free from those numerous air bubbles which are always to be observed in common ice. It possesses also a mawkish, unpleasant taste, and is totally unable to preserve the life of any aquatic animal. The presence of this minute quantity of air in ordinary water, is very essential to its utility. Faraday found that water, totally destitute of air, does not boil in the usual mode, but when heated to the boiling point, it at once, with an instantaneous and violent explosion, passes into the form of steam. This strange fact, which shows upon what small, and, apparently, trivial circumstances, the comfort--nay, we may truly say--the existence of man depends, is strikingly shown by a very ingenious experiment, devised by that celebrated chemist. He took a piece of Wenham Lake ice, (which, from peculiar local causes, such as being formed from spring water, is totally destitute of air,) and melted it under a covering of sweet oil; this prevented the absorption of any air during the liquefaction; on continuing the heat, the water rose in temperature, and on reaching the boiling point, suddenly burst into steam, with an explosive power sufficiently great to scatter the glass vessel in which the experiment was made into fragments; and had it not been for a protecting covering of wire gauze, very serious effects might have ensued.

From the precipitation of the dissolved chalk present in most kinds of water, a cloudiness or slight turbidity is always to be observed in boiled water.

After the escape of the air, bubbles of steam, at first very small in size, are formed at the bottom of the vessel, those formed at first are at once cooled from the whole water not being of an equal temperature, and are condensed before they reach the surface: this very rapid and successive condensation of numerous small bubbles gives rise to that peculiar vibration which occasions what is termed the singing of the teakettle, and which, as is well known, is indicative of its approach to the boiling point; when the whole water is uniformly heated, this effect no longer occurs, but the bubbles of steam rise to the surface and escape. After having been heated to 212°, the temperature of water no longer rises; it is not possible, under ordinary circumstances, to increase the temperature in the slightest degree; for all the extra heat that is given to boiling water merely produces increased quantity of steam, by which it is carried off, without affecting the heat of the remaining water. This is a matter of considerable practical importance in cookery; and it should be always borne in mind, that the most gentle simmer is as efficacious in cooking as the most violent boiling;


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for the degree of heat in both cases is precisely the same, so that after having once raised the water to the boiling point, the most moderate fire is sufficient in ordinary cases to keep it there; by attention to this point, a most enormous saving may often be effected in the consumption of fuel, although this is a consideration that will be more fully entered into in a subsequent chapter.

Thick liquids, which do not readily permit the escape of steam or the rapid motion between the particles of fluid, may, however, be readily heated at the part exposed to the fire to a much higher degree, while those portions not immediately in contact with the heat are much colder; from this cause they are very apt to be charred, and if articles of food, they are totally spoiled. To avoid this effect, recourse may be had to the bain marie, which is simply the same contrivance that may be observed in a carpenter's glue-pot, applied to the preparation of articles of food,--being merely an inner vessel to contain the substance to be heated; this is placed in an outer one, the space between the two containing water. On placing this contrivance on the fire, it is obvious that the substance in the inner vessel being heated solely by the boiling water, cannot possibly become burnt. This most useful contrivance is adopted in all first-class kitchens, and is equally indispensable in the chemist's laboratory; by its aid, soups, gravies, &c., can be kept hot any length of time without risk, preserves made without burning, &c. The chief precautions required in its use are, that the inner vessel should be thin and formed of metal, so as to allow the rapid transmission of heat from boiling water, and care should be taken that the outer vessel does not boil dry. One serious disadvantage attends its use as ordinarily employed: it is, that it is impossible to heat substances in it to the boiling point, for the water itself is only at that temperature and the substance in the inner vessel is always a few degrees below. This evil, however, may be entirely obviated, by using a solution in the outer vessel, which boils at a higher temperature than 212°, and which will therefore raise the inner vessel and its contents to that point; thus, if the water be made to dissolve as much common salt as it is capable of doing, it will not boil until it is heated to 224°; or if it is saturated with sal-ammoniac or nitre, the heat will rise 12° or 14° higher. We need scarcely say that the first of these substances will be found a very useful and economical addition to the bain marie. When chemists require a still higher temperature, they have recourse to a bath of olive oil, which is capable of bearing a degree of heat as high as 500°; but its extreme danger over an open fire entirely precludes its use in any culinary operation.

The mode of conducting the operation of boiling should not be uniform, but vary with the different purposes required. Thus, in the case of meat, a temperature of 212° hardens, instead of softening, two of the substances which it contains; namely, the fibrine, or material forming the chief part of the muscular fibre, and the albumen, or portion which is analogous to white of egg; if, on the contrary, meat is cooked by means of water at a lower temperature, the most nutritious parts are dissolved out, and the solid food left comparatively innutritious. The celebrated German chemist, Liebig, proposes the following plan:--he recommends that a piece of meat of considerable size should be taken and plunged into perfectly boiling water, over a good fire; that the water should be kept boiling for a few minutes, and then a portion of cold water, equal in quantity to about one-half of the boiling water, should be thrown in: this will reduce the temperature to about 160°, at which point the meat


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should be kept until thoroughly done; which, however, takes a much longer time than the ordinary mode.

The object of this mode of proceeding is, in the first instance, to harden the exterior of the meat, converting it into a sort of crust, which prevents the escape of the nutritious juices into the water, while the long continuance of the gentle heat afterwards cooks the interior without hardening either the albumen or the fibrine. Of course, where the object of boiling is to make soup, the opposite plan must be had recourse to; the meat should be in small instead of large pieces, put on in cold water and very slowly heated, so that all the soluble parts may be dissolved before the fibre is hardened by the action of boiling water.

In boiling eggs, the effect of heat in hardening the albumen is well known; by being suddenly plunged into boiling water, the outside is hardened to the greatest degree of which it is capable, and is thereby rendered exceedingly difficult of digestion, while the inside is barely warmed; if, on the contrary, they are placed in cold water, which is then raised to the boiling point, removed from the fire, and allowed to stand about a minute (or two, if required to be well done,) it will be found that, instead of having an almost leathery consistence, the white will be uniformly partially hardened, and will furnish a much more pleasant and digestible article of diet; the improvement, in fact, is so great, that common eggs cooked in this manner very nearly approach new laid ones in quality.

If the operation of boiling has to be performed on any substance containing starchy matters--as potatoes, rice, flour, &c., then the heat must, on the contrary, be raised to a sufficient degree to burst the little grains of which the starch consists, and liberate the interior nutritious portions, before it can become fit food for man; uncooked starch not being readily or easily digested. And even in the case of those vegetable-feeding animals whose power of digesting such substances surpasses that of man, there is the greatest advantage to be derived from the use of cooked food, as the most intelligent and scientific farmers at the present day well know; and we would strongly urge on those of our readers who keep pigs to try the experiment of baking the potatoes they give them; for this process, like boiling, has the effect of bursting the starch grains; they will find the effect to be, that the food will go much further, all of it being digested, and that the quality of the flesh will be very materially improved.

> CHAPTER XVIII.
ECONOMY OF HEAT.

PERHAPS few of our readers are aware of the extraordinary wastefulness of our usual processes for obtaining artificial heat; at the most moderate computation, seven-eighths of the warmth produced by an open fire, pass up the chimney, and are entirely useless; and according to other estimates, which we regard as being nearer the truth, fourteen parts out of every fifteen are uselessly wasted. It may be asked what are the defects of a common fireplace that render it so wasteful, and in what way is the heat carried off? In reply it may be stated, that one half the heat produced passes away with the smoke and heated air arising from the fire, a quarter is carried up by the draught of cold air from the room, which, flowing around the fire and between it and the mantel-piece, rises with the smoke. Again, the soot which passes away is unburned fuel, and is therefore useless; and a large portion of


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heat is thrown downwards upon the ashes and is wasted; while the iron of which the ranges are generally made, conveys away a considerable quantity. On the continent of Europe the production of heat is more economically managed--stoves of very admirable construction being constantly had recourse to, both for the purpose of producing warmth and for cookery. It is to the latter application of heat that we must mainly confine ourselves, having been at some considerable pains in examining the various stoves and ranges now to be obtained.

The cooking-stove common in Europe, consists of an enclosed fire-pan, with a grating below and a lid at the top for the supply of fuel; this is enclosed in an oven, supported on the floor of the room by feet, and which is heated by the warmth thrown out by the sides of the fire-pan, and also by a flue spreading over the top, which is thus heated; while the upper surface of the flue forms a hot plate, on which many saucepans, &c., can be kept boiling, and any vessel can also be placed over the fire by the removal of the lid. As the draught is under perfect control, the fuel is slowly consumed, and the stove affords means of baking, boiling, frying, and stewing, at a very small expense.

Those of our readers who visited Prince Albert's Model Cottages opposite the Exhibition in London, may have noticed a stove looking very much like a long oblong box, standing on four legs, having two doors in the front, one opening into a large sized oven, the other disclosing the fire-grate, which was fed by the removal of a lid at the top;--the draught from the fire passed over the oven, heating it, and the hot plate above. This stove combines all the advantages of the continental cooking-stove, with the cheerful appearance of an open fire; at the same time, by closing up the fire-place door, it is converted into a close stove with an excessively small consumption of fuel. It bakes admirably, either large joints, or bread, at the same time it boils a saucepan and steamer over the fire-hole, and also four large, or six smaller saucepans on the top of the hot plate. It fries well, and broils before the fire, and this with less than one half the fuel that was employed to do a portion of the work in the range. The Bain Marie, which is so excellent a means of keeping soups, gravies, sauces, &c., hot without burning or drying them up, is readily used with it; and the sauté pan or deep frying-pan, which is employed as a preliminary operation in most French made dishes, is conveniently used; this contrivance derives its name from the verb sauter, to jump--the meat being rapidly turned over and browned previous to stewing. The only disadvantage attending the use of this stove is, that it is not calculated for roasting, but every other operation in cooking it performs infinitely better than a common fire. This stove, which is termed the Cottager's Stove, is made by Messrs. Benham, Wigmore Street, London.

[Illustration: An illustration of a rectangular steel box sitting on four decorative legs. The box has a chimney coming out of the top, back left corner, two small doors on the front and one round lid on the top front, right corner.]

Those who object to a stove, preferring a range, even at a greater sacrifice of economy, should still be somewhat guided by correct principles in their selection;


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a range surrounded by iron is an absurdity, as the metal conducts away the heat rapidly; it should be backed and lined with fire-brick, or Welsh lumps, which throw out the heat with great power. In an open fire-place, the active combustion is wanted in front for roasting, and there only should air enter the fire; in most ranges the air enters below, causing the greatest heat to be thrown upon the ashes. It may be thought that closing up the bottom would produce the same effect as allowing it to be choked up with ashes in a common grate, deadening the fire; this is not the case with a properly constructed range. Backed with a slanting back of fire clay, the ashes can be readily removed at the bottom, and all the draught being in front, there is a bright fire at the place where it is required.

In situations where gas is to be obtained, it forms a ready, and for some purposes, very economical means of obtaining heat; its economy does not arise from its cheapness compared with other means, but from the fact that it need not be lighted till the instant it is required, and can be as quickly extinguished when it has done its required duty; for heating any vessels containing liquids, especially if the heat is required to be only of short continuance, gas will be found extremely advantageous. A ring burner, constructed as shown in Fig. 2, less than three inches in diameter, will quickly boil a gallon of water in a metallic vessel; burners of this description are usually used in the laboratory, surrounded by a case made of sheet iron or tinned plate, as in Fig. 3; this serves to support the vessel to be heated, to steady the jets of flame, and to conduct every portion of hot air against the bottom; the door also gives a ready access to the burner for the purposes of lighting the gas.

[Illustration: An illustration of a ring burner. A device that looks like a goblet with a tube coming out of it.]

For the domestic use of gas in heating we believe there is no contrivance so useful as the following:--A circular hole, from two to four or more inches in diameter, is cut in the dresser, through which is passed a sheet-iron tube, supported by three little elbows; this tube projects a few inches above the table, and about a foot and a half below; its lower end is open, and into it projects a gas-pipe, furnished with a stop-cock; the upper extremity is covered with a sheet of wire gauze, similar to that used for blinds, on which, as shown in Fig. 4, may be placed some pieces of pumice-stone, surrounded and kept together by a broad ring;--neither the pumice-stone nor the ring, however, are essential parts of the contrivance. The action of this arrangement is as follows:--When the gas is turned on it escapes from the pipe, rising through the tube, and mixing with the air contained within it; this mixture then escapes through the wire gauze, and may be lighted on its upper side, without passing


[Illustration: An illustration of cylinder of metal with perforation at the top edge and a little rectangular door in the middle.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a gas heating device for domestic use.]




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through it to the gas below; the flame should be perfectly free from smoke, which indicates too much gas--should be pale, colorless, and not soil any bright metal placed in it; if the flame is in the slightest degree yellow it will do this, and then the gas should be partly turned off--on the contrary, if there is not enough gas, the flame will be extinguished. When lighted, the pumice becomes red-hot and throws out a great heat; when used in boiling, the vessel should be supported a short distance over the flame by a trivet; if it is made to rest on the top of the ring, and is sufficiently large to close it entirely, the current is stopped and the flame extinguished, whilst the unburned gas still escapes below. This contrivance is most useful; it is lighted in an instant, is perfectly free from smoke, no unburned gas escapes, it throws out great heat, and may be employed to heat bright tools with much more convenience than a charcoal fire. The objections to its use are, that in burning it produces, as all gas does, a quantity of carbonic acid gas, deteriorating the air, and that the flame cannot be very much enlarged or diminished, so that if fires of different power are required, two or more of the contrivances must be put in order. Otherwise, the instantaneous action, small cost, great heating power, and cleanliness of the plan, strongly recommend it. In summer weather, in many small families, it can be made to dispense altogether with the use of a fire. By a little variation, the whole contrivance may be made to stand on the table, like Fig. 2; in this and other cases, vulcanized India-rubber will be found to form by far the best kind of flexible tube, being quite impervious, very durable, and excessively pliant. Those who wish to try the experiment of heating on this plan, may readily do so by covering the top of the glass chimney of any common burner with a piece of wire gauze, folding it over the sides; the gas may then be turned on, and lighted above the gauze, after it has mingled with the air in the chimney: a small burner, however, does not afford sufficient gas for the purpose, and there is consequently too much air, and the flame is weak and liable to go out.

We cannot conclude this chapter without entering our most earnest protest against all those injurious contrivances for burning charcoal without a flue. The use of charcoal-braziers in a large kitchen is not to be recommended, but a charcoal stove in a dwelling-room is most objectionable. Charcoal, in burning, produces carbonic acid gas, an invisible and therefore insidious poison, which is so deadly in its effects, that if the air of a room contains but one-tenth of its bulk, the breathing of it for any time is fatal. Every pound of charcoal, in burning, produces more than three pounds and a half of this deadly gas.

In Paris, in the years 1834 and 1835, there were 360 cases resulting from the fumes of charcoal, of which more than 260 were fatal. In order to test the effects of these stoves, Mr. Coathupe, of Wraxall, shut himself up in a close room containing eighty cubic yards of air, with one of them in action. In four hours he was seized with giddiness, which, in an hour's time, became most intense; he then had the desire to vomit, but not the power; this was followed by an utter loss of strength, throbbing at the temples, and agonizing headache, but no sense of suffocation; finding that the experiment was becoming dangerous, he essayed to open the window, but had the greatest difficulty in so doing; and when his wife came into the room, he was found in a speechless state, in which he remained for some time.

In a fatal case, which happened in St.


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John's Wood, where two girls were killed by the use of these stoves, it was found, that the quantity of carbonic acid produced was capable of rendering poisonous the air of a room ten times the size of the one in which it was used. Men who, knowing the poisonous effects of these stoves, still sell them, recommending them as wholesome, with the deliberate assertion that their prepared fuel, which is merely charcoal disguised, is not deleterious, evince a much more lively interest in the state of their own pockets, than in the lives of their customers.

Let it not be imagined that the case of Mr. Coathupe is but a solitary one; the action of burning charcoal is of the same deleterious nature on all persons. In January 1836, seventy people suffered the same symptoms, though in a milder degree, in the church at Downham, in Norfolk, England, where two of these dangerous contrivances had been introduced: and in the Annales d'Hygéine, tom. xi., will be found an account of the suicides in the department of the Seine in ten years; these were 4595 in number, of which 1426 deaths were produced by burning charcoal. We would again recommend our readers under no circumstances, however much they may be recommended by false assertions, to admit stoves without flues into their houses.

> CHAPTER XIX.
CLEANING AND DISINFECTING.

WE have elsewhere given directions as to the best mode of cleaning various articles, such as bottles, glass, &c. What remains, therefore, under this head, is to furnish hints for cleaning miscellaneous articles, which have not been included under previous accounts; and the very important process of disinfecting, which may be regarded as a medical cleaning, falls, naturally, into the same chapter. As the substances to be submitted to the process of cleaning vary greatly from one another, we shall find it more convenient to throw our remarks into the form of miscellaneous hints, than to arrange them in a chapter for consecutive reading.

Iron-work which is exposed to wet, rusts rapidly; it is usually preserved from the action of moisture either by covering it with two or three coatings of paint, as is customary in large out-door works, or by brushing it over with a varnish termed Brunswick black; this plan is usually followed in the case of smaller substances used in-doors. A very superior plan for protecting small iron goods from the injurious action of wet, is to heat them a little below redness, and whilst hot to brush them over with common linseed oil, which is decomposed by the heat, and forms a thin, very firm coating of varnish, which is quite impervious to water, and unlike paint or Japan-black, does not chip off. It is evident that this plan can only be adopted in few cases, but where it is available we very strongly recommend it.

Floor Boarding and other wood work is exceedingly apt to be stained by various substances split upon it. Ink stains, for instance, are extremely obstinate; they withstand washing many times, and at last turn to a rusty iron color, from the application of the alkali of the soap. But the black stain of recent ink and the rusty iron-mould may be removed by the action of oxalic or muriatic acid. As wood is not likely to be injured like cloth or linen, the latter may be used, being the cheaper, and it should be diluted with two or three times its bulk of water, and applied until the stain is removed. Grease which has been trodden


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in, or has remained a long time, should be first softened by the application of a little turpentine, and then it will be found to yield much more readily than it otherwise would to the action of fuller's earth and pearlash or soda. Fruit stains are quickly removed by the action of a little chloride of lime, mixed with water, and applied until the desired effect is produced. It should be borne in mind that all vegetable colors are utterly destroyed beyond any restoration, by the energetic action of this agent.

Paint, when soiled, is readily cleaned by soap and water; soda and pearlash are frequently employed, but they act by removing a portion of the paint, and if not thoroughly washed off with clean water afterwards, they will be found to soften the whole. Caustic alkalies, such as the solution for washing on the new plan, will rapidly dissolve paint, and are therefore inapplicable for cleaning; they may, however, be usefully employed in removing paint from wood, where such an operation is requisite.

Plate may be cleaned by rouge, or if this is not readily obtained, by washed whiting; this is readily made by stirring some whiting up with water, then allowing the larger particles and the grit to subside, and pouring off the water charged with the finer powder, which is allowed to settle, and dried for use. When plate is very much stained, it may be cleaned with putty powder, but this preparation would soon wear away the silver if used frequently or unnecessarily. It may be mentioned, that this substance is not made from putty, as its name might seem to imply, but is a rust or oxide of tin, obtained by heating the metal.

Japanned Goods, such as tea-boards, should not have boiling water poured upon them, but should be washed with warm water, and polished with a piece of wash-leather and fine flour.

Knives--The common wooden knife-board wears out the knives very rapidly, it is therefore much better to employ a piece of buff-leather to cover the board; for very superior cutlery emery powder should be used instead of Bath-brick. Whatever the material of the board, it will be rapidly spoiled by cleaning the backs of knives upon the edge of the board; to prevent this evil, a small piece of leather should be fixed on one end to clean the backs upon.

Steel Forks are readily cleaned by having a pot of damp moss or hay, with some sand intermixed, into which they may be repeatedly thrust. If knives or forks get an unpleasant taint which cannot be removed readily, they may be plunged into the mould of the garden, which has much absorptive power, and rapidly removes such odors.

Bedsteads may be freed from vermin by brushing them over in the cracks with a mixture formed of one ounce of corrosive sublimate, dissolved in half a pint of oil of turpentine, and the same quantity of any spirit, such as strong gin or whiskey; this effectually prevents their harboring. But when first applied, it has a disagreeable odor from the turpentine, and great care must be taken with it, as it is excessively poisonous. It has been found that the presence of the odor of creosote has effectually driven away these enemies to our nocturnal peace. On the whole, constant and unremitting cleanliness, and the employment of iron bedsteads, which are now manufactured of the most elegant forms, are the best means of getting rid of these pests.

We pass on to the important operations of disinfecting. Various means have been proposed of lessening or utterly destroying the infectious emanations that proceed from persons in certain diseases, and which frequently have the power of attaching themselves with greater or less tenacity to articles of wearing


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apparel, furniture, &c. Generally speaking, a good system of ventilation is sufficient to prevent infection. When rooms are properly aired, a disease can seldom be caught more than a few feet from the patient; or even in the case of those most infectious disorders, scarlet-fever, and small-pox, it seldom spreads more than a few yards; but if the air of a room is confined, the infection is concentrated, and becomes much more certain in its action.

Downy and fibrous materials readily receive infection; it may, in fact, in many instances, be folded up in them, and so retained almost any length of time; but if they are throroughly exposed to a free current of air, it is dissipated in a short time. It should be mentioned, that infectious diseases are more readily received in certain states of the body; thus, fear, timidity, mental anxiety, and such states of mind, by lowering the general tone of the system, render it much more liable to contract infectious or contagious diseases; a state of exhaustion from bodily fatigue, or from hunger, has the same tendency. Infection is also more readily received through the lungs than through the skin; therefore, it is important never to receive the breath of a patient, and, as a sailor would say, always to keep to the windward side of him. Amongst the domestic disinfectants, vinegar has a great reputation, but undeservedly so; its only action is to overpower, by its odor, the smell of a sick room--as a destroyer of the peculiar influences that engender disease, it has no power. Burning substances act in the same manner. Burnt brown paper, fumigating pastiles, tobacco, only act by substituting one smell for another. The ridiculous practice of carrying about a piece of camphor is very common, and is perfectly inefficacious. If it has any action at all, it must be an injurious one; for camphor is a stimulant, and its constant inhalation must tend to lower the system, and so produce the very evil it is supposed to remedy.

The best means of preventing infection, are ventilation and cleanliness in every particular. The best means of destroying it are those powerful chemical agents which have the power of uniting with the hydrogen which is supposed to form part of the infectious substances.

The most powerful, easily controlled, and in every sense the best disinfectant, is chlorine gas. This agent at once destroys every trace of infection in all substances submitted to its action. Its formation is perfectly under control, and goes on in a gentle manner for days together, without requiring care or attendance. We consider that the slow liberation of chlorine is far superior to the employment of chloride of lime, which gives forth the gas in a modified form.

In one case of a school where scarlet-fever had returned after several attempts at purification, chlorine effected the complete removal of every trace of the disease. Various modes of liberating chlorine are known to chemists; but, for such purposes as the present, where a slow, uniform, and constant action is required, there are none equal to the following plan:--One pound of common table-salt is to be intimately mixed by stirring with an equal weight of a substance called manganese, which may be readily obtained from any good chemist. Small portions of this mixture should be placed in shallow pans (the saucers of common flower-pots answer the purpose); and upon them should be poured a mixture of oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) and water, the quantity required for the above weights, viz., for one pound of each ingredient, being two pounds of oil of vitriol and one of water, both by weight. These should have been previously mixed in a wooden vessel, being stirred by a wooden lath, and allowed to become cool before being poured on the salt and manganese,


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as the mixing of the acid and water generates great heat. Too much care cannot be taken with the acid, as it is excessively corrosive in its nature, and destroys most substances with which it comes in contact. When these materials are all mixed, chlorine is slowly evolved for a period of three or four days, and in so gentle a manner that not the slightest irritating or unpleasant effect is produced. If it is wished to cause the more rapid production of gas, the saucer may be placed over a basin of boiling water, or upon a hot brick; but the slow generation for a considerable length of time is what should be more especially aimed at. It is needless to say, that all substances supposed to have been contaminated, should be spread out so as to receive the influence of the gas; the bed-linen, and all woollen garments, being exposed by being spread out on chairs, lines, &c.; the drawers and cupboards opened; and while the disinfecting is in actual operation, the windows and doors should be kept shut, to prevent the dissipation of the chlorine. It is found that two ounces of manganese, with a proportionate quantity of the other materials, is sufficient for a room twenty feet wide, forty feet long, and twelve feet high, which contains 20X40X12=9600 cubic feet.

It may be mentioned, that breathing chlorine in this highly diluted state, is not injurious to the general health; although, in a concentrated form, or unless very much diluted with air, it is irritating in the highest degree. In the very dilute state, it is occasionally prescribed for the inhalation of consumptive patients.

For the satisfaction of those who rely on the authority of a great name, it may be stated, that chlorine used in the manner here recommended, was employed by one of the most illustrious of English chemists, in the case of the Penitentiary, when a violent and fatal disease broke out there, and with complete success. The operator in this case was FARADAY.

It may occasionally be found more convenient to use another mixture for the liberation of chlorine gas, in which case the following may be employed:--One part of manganese is to be drenched with four parts by weight of muriatic acid (spirits of salts), mixed with one part of water. The gas is evolved slowly in the cold, and rapidly if assisted by a gentle heat. This process is rather more expensive, and possesses no advantage over the one previously described.

> CHAPTER XX.
FERMENTING AND DISTILLING.

IN ordinary language, the term fermentation is employed to signify the peculiar changes which take place when a solution of sugar, or any vegetable substance containing saccharine matter, is converted into spirit--this, however, is only one of many of such kinds of action, which are well known to chemists. The most important fermentations are the saccharine fermentation, when sugar is formed by a change taking place in starch; the vinous, when spirit is formed from sugar; and the acetous, in which vinegar or acetic acid is formed from spirit.

The saccharine fermentation, or the formation of sugar from starch, is interesting, though it does not influence such operations as are included in our Domestic Manipulations. If starch is dissolved in water, a little wheat flour added and the whole exposed to a moderately warm temperature, it will be found that after a few days, varying in number with the degree of warmth, the starch has disappeared, and the liquid has become sweet from the formation of sugar. The same change takes place with much greater


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rapidity if starch is boiled with a solution of malt, which contains an active principle called diastase, capable of bringing about this fermentation in a short time. The formation of sugar from starch is an operation which constantly occurs in all growing seeds, the effect being to change an insoluble substance, such as starch, into one which is capable of being dissolved in the juices of the young plant, and nourishing it during the early stages of its growth. In the operation of malting barley, the change is induced artificially, for the purpose of producing sugar in the malt, which is afterwards made to undergo the second kind of fermentation, namely, the vinous, or that in which spirit is produced.

When sugar, either that which naturally exists, in many plants, or as formed from starch as just mentioned, is dissolved in water, so as to form a moderately weak solution, and the whole exposed to a degree of warmth varying from seventy to eighty degrees, it rapidly undergoes a remarkable change, provided a small quantity of any vegetable ferment is present--such as yeast, or the juice of the grape, or of many other fruits. The sugar wholly disappears, and is resolved into two substances--one a gas, termed carbonic acid, which escapes, giving rise to a slow effervescence; and the other, a portion of spirit, which remains in the liquid. This kind of fermentation is much more difficult to prevent than to establish; in making syrups, it is found especially annoying; for if the quantity of sugar used is too small, the syrup is certain to ferment and spoil; and if to much is added, it crystallizes out in the solid form; as a general rule, however, it is found that two parts, by weight, of sugar, to one part, by weight, of water, or other liquid--such as the juice of fruits, made into a syrup by boiling for a short time--neither ferments nor crystallizes.

In the act of fermentation the spirit produced by the process last described is changed into acetic acid, or vinegar. Here, also, the presence of some substance capable of commencing the fermentation is requisite, for pure spirit and water will not undergo the change. The ferment employed may be the vinegar-plant--or it may be a little vinegar, which may have been previously formed.

For the rapid progress of the acetous fermentation, a high temperature is requisite--even as great as about eighty-six degrees--and free exposure to air is essential. The best vinegar is that made from weak wine, at Orleans; the plan followed is to introduce a portion of vinegar into the vessels, adding the wine at intervals, and never quite emptying them. In this country, a weak beer is brewed, without hops, for the purpose of making vinegar, and a small quantity of dilute oil of vitriol is added, after the vinegar is formed, to destroy the mouldiness that is otherwise apt to be present. Vinegar may be formed from any weak spirituous liquid; but it should be borne in mind that two circumstances are essential to success--namely, a high summer temperature, either natural or artificial, and free exposure to air.

The process of distillation is one which is used for separating liquids from each other that boil at different degrees of heat. In domestic economy, it is most frequently employed to obtain spirit, more or less flavored, or scented, with some volatile essential oil. The apparatus commonly used is the Still, for boiling the liquid to generate the vapor, and a long spirally twisted tube termed the worm, which is placed in a tub of cold water, and through which the steam passes to be condensed. The worm is the most objectionable part of the modern still; its great evil is the difficulty with which it is cleaned, so as to prevent one strong-flavored substance spoiling


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those which are distilled afterwards. If the coils of the worm are not very numerous, a bullet, with a string attached, may be passed through it, and a sponge or small bottle-brush, fastened to the string, may be worked backwards and forwards; but if there are several coils, it will be found impossible to do this, from the resistance caused by friction. In this case, the only plan is to close one end of the worm with a cork, and fill it with a solution of caustic alkali, allowing it to remain for some hours, and repeating the application with fresh liquid, if it be required.

[Illustration: An illustration of a still.]

In Germany, the worm is being superseded by an excellent condenser, which is so superior that we are induced to give a sketch of it, hoping that it may lead to its adoption in this country. The vapors from the still pass into the tube A (Fig 1), by which they are conducted into B, a hollow globe, made to unscrew at its centre. The vapors, passing along the tubes C, are condensed, and the distilled liquid drops from D. The pipe E should convey a constant stream of cold water to the bottom of the tub, and this, rising as it is warmed by abstracting heat from the tubes and globe, should escape by F. All the tubes being straight, it is obvious that they can be readily cleaned from their ends.

In the laboratory, distilling is most frequently performed with vessels termed retorts, or even from flasks; but as these are not very applicable to domestic purposes, we pass them over.

In domestic practice, the still is usually employed to obtain some water or spirit flavored with essential oil, or the oil itself, and the process should be slightly modified so as to suit each case. The vegetable substance should not be placed on the bottom of the still itself, as in that case it might become burnt, and so give an unpleasant flavor to the whole; but a bottom of wicker-work should be placed in the still in the first instance for it to rest upon, or a perforated board. The substance to be distilled should be placed in the still, covered with water, for some hours before the fire is lighted; no more water being added than sufficient to cover it, if the preparation of oil is the object.

Herbs, for distilling, should be collected on a dry day, and--unless the oil resides in the seeds, as in the case of caraway, anise, &c., or in the flowers, as in the rose, lavender, &c.--just before the flowers have opened, as at that period there is the greatest quantity of essential oil in the plant. All plants cultivated for distillation, should be grown in a situation where they can receive a full amount of sun-light, as shade or darkness very much tends to prevent the formation of essential oil.

The liquid which comes out of the worm, is a mixture of water highly flavored with the substance, and some undissolved oil--this latter is sometimes heavier and sometimes lighter than water, either sinking or floating; in the latter case the oil may be readily separated by filling a bottle with the mixture, and when the oil has collected at the top, carrying it off by a few threads of cotton placed as in the figure (Fig. 2)


[Illustration: An illustration of a bottle with liquid in it and cotton threads coming out of it to form a syphon.]




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taking care that they are moistened with oil before arranging them; the cotton acts as a syphon, and removes the whole of the oil. If the object of the operation is to obtain the oil and not the distilled water, the latter should be preserved, and used again and again with fresh herbs, because having in the first operation dissolved as much oil as it is capable of doing, it causes no loss in the subsequent distillations.

> CHAPTER XXI.
LAYING OUT TABLES AND FOLDING NAPKINS.

THE art of laying out a table, whether for breakfast, luncheon, dinner, tea or supper, consists in arranging the various dishes, plate, glass, &c., methodically, and adhering to the rules we are about to make known.

Much trouble, irregularity, and confusion will be avoided in a house when there is company, if servants are instructed to prepare the table, sideboard, or dinner-wagon, in a similar manner and order daily.

All tables are usually laid out according to the following rules, yet there are local peculiarities which will necessarily present themselves, and should be adopted or rejected, as may appear proper to the good housewife:--

BREAKFASTS.--The table should be covered with a clean white cloth; the cups and saucers arranged at one end, on a tray if desirable; or the coffee-cups and saucers may be arranged at the right-hand side of one end of the table, and the tea-cups and saucers at the left: the tea-pot and coffee-pot occupying the space between in front, and the urn that at the back. Some persons substitute cocoa or chocolate for coffee, in which case they are to be placed the same. The slop-basin and milk-pitcher should be placed to the left; and the cream, and hot milk-pitchers, with the sugar basin, to the right.

The remainder of the table should be occupied in the centre by the various dishes to be partaken of; while at the sides must be ranged a large plate for meat, eggs, &c., and a small one for toast, rolls, &c., with a small knife and fork for each person; the carving knife and fork being placed point to handle; the butter and bread knives to the right of their respective dishes, which occupy the centre part, and spoons in front of the hot dishes with gravy. Salt-cellars should occupy the four corners, and, if required, the cruets should be placed in the centre of the table.

Dry toast should never be prepared longer than five minutes before serving, as it becomes tough, and the buttered, soppy and greasy, if too long prepared. Hot rolls should be brought to table covered with a napkin.

Every dish should be garnished appropriately, either with sippets, ornamental butter, water-cresses, parsley, or some one of the garnishes we shall point out in a future page.

The dishes usually set upon the table are selected from hot, cold, and cured meats; hot, cold, cured, and potted fish; game; poultry, cold or devilled; fruit, ripe, preserved, or candied; dressed and undressed vegetables; meat-pies and patties, cold; eggs; honey-comb; and savory morsels--as grilled kidneys, ham-toast, devils, &c.

Déjeuners à la fourchette are laid the same as suppers, except that tea and coffee are introduced; but in sporting circles not until the solids are removed.

When laid for a marriage or christening breakfast, a bride's or christening cake


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should occupy the centre instead of the épergne or plateau.

LUNCHEONS, OR NOONINGS.--The luncheon is laid in two ways; one way is to bring in a butler's tray with let-down sides, on which it is previously arranged upon a tray cloth, and letting down the sides and spreading the cloth upon the dining table, to distribute the things as required. The other is to lay the cloth as for dinner with the pickle-stand and cruets opposite each other; and, if in season, a small vase of flowers in the centre; if not, a water-pitcher and tumblers, which may be placed on a side-table at other times. The sides of the table are occupied by the requisites for each guest, viz., two plates, a large and small fork and knives, and dessert-spoon. A folded napkin, and the bread under, is placed upon the plate of each guest.

Carafes, with the tumblers belonging to and placed over them, are laid at the four corners, with the salt-cellars in front of them, between two table-spoons laid bowl to handle.

If French or light wines are served, they may be placed in the original bottles in ornamental wine vases, between the top and bottom dishes and the vase of flowers, with the corks drawn and partially replaced.

The dishes generally served for luncheons are the remains of cold meat neatly trimmed and garnished: cold game hashed or plain; hashes of all descriptions; curries; minced meats; cold pies, savory, fruit, or plain; plainly cooked cutlets, steaks, and chops; omelettes; bacon; eggs; devils and grilled bones; potatoes; sweetmeats; butter; cheese; salad and pickles. In fact almost anything does for lunch, whether of fish, flesh, fowl, pastry, vegetables, or fruit.

Ale and porter are generally served, but occasionally sherry, marsalla, port, or home-made wines, are introduced, with biscuit and ripe fruit.

A good housewife should always have something in the house ready to convert into a neat little luncheon, in case a few friends drop in, and it is astonishing how a really nice looking affair may be made out of the remains of the dinner served the day before: some glass, a sprinkle of plate, a few flowers, some good ale, or a little wine, and above all, a hearty welcome.

NAPKINS.--Dinner napkins should be about twenty-eight inches broad, and thirty inches long. They may be folded in a variety of ways, which impart a style to a table, without adding much to the expense, and may be readily accomplished with a little practice and attention to the following directions and diagrams.

1.--THE MITRE.-- (Fig. 1.)

Fold the napkin into three parts longways, then turn down the right-hand corner, and turn up the left-hand one, as in Fig. 2, A and B. Turn back the point A towards the right, so that it shall lie behind C; and B to the left, so as to be behind D. Double the napkin back at the line E, then turn up F from before and G from behind, when they will appear as in Fig. 3. Bend the corner H towards the right, and tuck it behind I, and turn back the corner K towards the left, at the dotted line, and tuck it into a corresponding part at the back. The bread is placed under the mitre, or in the centre at the top.

2.--THE EXQUISITE.-- (Fig. 4.)

Fold the napkin into three parts long-ways, then fold down two-fifths of the length from each side, as in Fig. 5, at A; roll up the part B towards the back, repeat on the other side, then turn up the corner towards the corner A, and it will appear as D. The centre part E is now


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to be turned up at the bottom, and down at the top, and the two rolls brought under the centre piece, as in Fig. 4. The bread is placed under the centre band, K, Fig. 4.

3.--THE COLLEGIAN.-- (Fig. 6.)

Fold the napkin into three parts long-ways, then turn down the two sides towards you, so that they shall appear as in Fig. 7; then roll up the part A underneath until it looks like B, Fig. 8. Now take the corner B and turn it up towards C, so that the edge of the rolled part shall be even with the central line; repeat the same on the other side, and turn the whole over, when it will appear as in Fig. 6. The bread is placed underneath the part K.

4.--THE CINDERELLA.-- (Fig. 9.)

Fold the napkin into three parts long-ways, then turn down the two sides as in Fig. 7; turn the napkin over, and roll up the lower part as in Fig. 10, A, B. Now turn the corner B upwards towards C, so that it shall appear as in D; repeat on the other side, and then bring the two parts E together so that they shall bend at the dotted line; and the appearance will now be as Fig. 9. The bread is placed under the apron part, K, Fig. 9.

5.--THE FLIRT.-- (Fig. 11.)

Fold the napkin into three parts long-ways, then fold across the breadth, commencing at one extremity, and continuing to fold from and to yourself in folds about two inches broad, until the whole is done; then place in a tumbler, and it will appear as in the illustration.

6.--THE NEAPOLITAN.-- (Fig. 12.)

Fold the napkin into three parts long-ways, then fold one of the upper parts upon itself from you; turn over the cloth with the part having four folds from you, and fold down the two sides so as to appear as in Fig. 7; then roll up the part A underneath, until it appears as in the dotted lines in Fig. 13, at B. Now turn up the corner B towards C, so that the edge of the rolled part shall be even with the central line: repeat the same upon the opposite side, and turn the whole over, when it will appear as in Fig. 12: the bread being placed underneath the part K, as represented in the illustration.

7.--THE "FAVORITE," OR OUR OWN. (Fig. 14.)

Fold the napkin into three parts long-ways, then turn down the two edges as in Fig. 7, and roll up the part A on both sides, until as represented on the right-hand side in Fig. 14; then turn it backwards (as A B) on both sides; now fold down the point C towards you, turn over the napkin, and fold the two other parts from you so that they shall appear as in Fig. 15. Turn the napkin over, thus folded, and raising the centre part with the two thumbs, draw the two ends (A and B) together, and pull out the parts (C and D) until they appear as in Fig. 14. The bread is to be placed as represented in K, Fig. 14.

> DINNERS.

Dinners.--The appearance a dinner-table presents does not depend so much upon a profuseness of viands, as upon the neatness, cleanliness, and well-studied arrangement of the whole. Taste, if well directed, may produce a handsome dinner; whereas three times the amount of money may be expended upon another, and yet not make even a respectable appearance.

We cannot too strongly urge the necessity of having things done in the same manner every day as when there is company. The servants become accustomed


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[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin folded into a shape called The Mitre.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin being folded into The Mitre.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin being folded into The Mitre.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin folded into a shape called The Exquisite.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin being folded into The Exquisite.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin folded into a shape called The Collegian.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin being folded into The Collegian.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin being folded into The Collegian.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin folded into a shape called The Cinderella.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin being folded into The Cinderella.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin folded into a shape called The Flirt.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin folded into a shape called The Neapolitan.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin being folded into The Neapolitan.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin folded into a shape called The "Favorite" or Our Own.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin being folded into the shape of The "Favorite or Our Own.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner napkin being folded into the shape of The "Favorite or Our Own.]




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to waiting properly, things are always at hand, and they do not appear awkward when visitors drop in; then every thing is regular, and goes on smoothly.

[Illustration: An illustration of a dinner bell.]

To Lay the Cloth.--The table should be well polished, and then covered with a cloth, over which a fine white damask one should be spread. If the white cloth is to be kept on after dinner, it is customary to spread a small cloth at either end of the table where the large dishes are placed, to protect the long cloth from accidental spots arising from gravy, &c.; these slips are removed after dinner, and the cloth cleaned with crumb-brushes. In some houses an entire upper cloth is placed upon the table instead of slips, and this being removed after dinner, does not require the tedious process of brushing the table-cloth.

When the cloth has been spread, place carafes, with the tumblers belonging to and placed over them, between every four persons, a salt-cellar between every third person, and a large and small knife, fork, and spoon, to each guest, with two wine-glasses, a champagne-glass, and a tumbler, to the right of each, and the bread placed in or under folded napkins between the knives, forks, and spoons; and at large entertainments or public dinners, the name of each guest neatly written on a card in front of the napkin, so as to prevent confusion. The centre ornament, usually a candelabrum, plateau, an épergne, or a vase of artificial flowers, must now be set on, and the mats for the various dishes arranged; then the wine-coolers or ornamental vases placed between the centre piece and the top and bottom dishes, with the wines in the original bottles, loosely corked; the spoons for helping the various dishes, asparagus tongs, fish knife and fork or slice, and carving knives and forks, are placed in front of the respective dishes to which they belong; and knife-rests opposite to those who have to carve; with a bill of fare, and a pile of soup-plates before those that have to help the soup.

In arranging or laying out a table, several things require particular attention, and especially the following:--

Plate should be well cleaned, and have a bright polish; few things look worse than to see a greasy-looking épergne and streaky spoons. Glass should be well rubbed with a wash-leather, dipped in a solution of fine whiting and stone-blue, and then dried; afterwards it should be polished with an old silk handkerchief. Plates and dishes should be hot, otherwise the guests will be disgusted by seeing flakes of fat floating about in the gravy. Bread should be cut in pieces about an inch thick, and each round of a loaf into six parts, or if for a dinner party, dinner rolls should be ordered. The bread is placed under the napkins, or on the left of each guest, if dinner napkins are not used; some of the bread being placed in a bread-tray covered with a crochet cloth upon the sideboard. Lights, either at or after the dinner, should be subdued, and above the guests, if possible, so as to be shed upon the table, without intercepting the view. Sauces, either bottle, sweet, or boat-- vegetables, and sliced cucumber, or glazed


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onions for stubble goose, should be placed upon the sideboard; a plate basket for removing the soiled plates is usually placed under the sideboard, or some other convenient part of the room; and two knife-trays, covered with napkins, are placed upon a butler's tray; these are used for removing soiled carvers and forks, and the soiled silver. It is useful to have a large-sized brad-awl, a cork-screw, and funnel, with strainer; the former to break the wire of the champagne bottles, and the latter to strain port wine, if required to be opened during dinner.

To lay out the sideboard or tray.--Little requires to be done, except to arrange the silver, knives, cruets, and various dishes to be placed there. The silver should be arranged on one end of the sideboard, as in Figs. 1 and 2, the gravy spoons being placed bowl to handle, and the cheese-scoop, marrow-spoon, and salad spoons or scissors, where most convenient. The knives are placed as in Fig. 3, for the convenience of removal, because by this means a single knife can be abstracted without disturbing the others; carving knives and forks should be placed above the others, point to handle. The wine-glasses, tumblers, and finger-glasses, for dessert, are placed where most convenient, but usually in the centre of the back, with ice-plates near to them, and the wine-glasses placed in the finger-glasses, as in Fig. 4; but when only one glass is used, that is placed in the centre, mouth downwards. At very large or fashionable dinners, the finger-glasses are sometimes placed on the dinner-table with the plain and colored wine-glasses in them, and the same, refilled, are placed on again at dessert. The cruets, sauces, &c., are placed at one end, and the vegetables, &c., in the centre front of the side-board.

[Illustration: An illustration of three spoons and three forks with their handles pointed to the right.]

[Illustration: An illustration of four knives, handles downward and two wineglasses inside a finger glass.]

To place the dishes on the table.--Each servant should be provided, at large dinders, with a bill of fare, and instructed at small ones, where the dishes are to be placed. No two dishes resembling each other should be near the same part of the table. Soups or broth should always be placed at the head of the table; if there are two, top and bottom; if four, top, bottom, and two sides, opposite each other, or alternately with fish. Fish should be placed at the head of the table; if there are two sorts, have fried at the bottom and boiled at the top; if four, arrange the same as the soup. We may observe, that a white and a brown, or a mild and a high-seasoned soup, should occupy either side of the centre piece, and that it looks handsomer to have fried and boiled fish opposite each other, but they should never be placed upon the same dish. Fish is generally served upon a napkin, the corners of which are either turned in or thrown over the fish, or upon a piece of simple netting, which is turned in all round; but we recommend our readers to use the elegant serviette, as being more stylish.

The first course generally consists of soups and fish, which are removed by the roasts, stews, &c., of the second course.

The second course, when there are three, consists of roasts and stews for the top and bottom; turkey or fowls, ham garnished, tongue, or fricandeau, for the sides; with small made dishes for corners, served in covered dishes, as curries, ragoûts, fricassees, stews, &c.

When there are two roasts, one should be white, and the other brown. Removes are generally placed upon large dishes, for, as they supply the place of the fish and soups, they constitute the principal part of the dinner. What are termed flancs are not so large as the removes, nor so small as the entrées, or made dishes, and are generally served in a differently formed dish. They are seldom used except when there are eighteen or twenty persons.

Entrées, or made dishes, require great care in placing them upon the table, otherwise the gravy slops over and soils the dish; they are, therefore, usually served with a wall of mashed potatoes, rice, or other vegetables, to keep them in their proper place. They should also be served as hot as possible.

When there is but one principal dish, it should be placed at the head of the table. If three dishes, the principal to the head, and the others opposite each other, near the bottom; if four, the largest to the head, the next size to the foot, and the other two at the sides; if five, place the same as for four, with the smallest in the centre; if six, place the same as for four, with two small dishes on each side; if seven, put three dishes down the centre of the table, and two on each side; if eight, four dishes down the middle, and two on each side, at equal distances; if nine, place them in three equal lines, but with the proper dishes at the top and bottom of the table; if ten, put four down the centre, one at each corner, and one on each side, opposite the vacancy between the two central dishes; or four down the middle and three on each side, opposite the vacancies of the centre dishes; if twelve, place them in three rows of four each, or six down the middle, and three at equal distances on each side. If more than twelve, they must be arranged on the same principles, but varying according to number.

Oval or circular dining-tables require to have the dishes arranged in a shape corresponding to the table.

The third course consists of game, delicate vegetables, dressed in the French style, then puddings, creams, jellies, &c.

When there are only two courses, the first generally consists of soups and fish, removed by boiled poultry, ham, tongue, stews, roasts, ragoûts, curries, or made dishes generally, with vegetables. The second consists of roasted poultry or game at the top and bottom, with dressed vegetables, maccaroni, &c., succeeded by jellies, creams, preserved fruit, pastry and general confectionery. It is generally contrived to give as great a variety as possible in these dinners: thus--a jelly, a cream, a compôte, an ornamental cake, a dish of preserved fruit, fritters, a blanc-mange, a pudding, &c.

Salads and celery are usually served before the puddings and pastry are introduced. In Great Britain, after the third course, cheese, ornamented butter, salad, radishes, celery in a glass bowl or on a dish, sliced cucumber (and at small parties, marrow-bones), are served. A marrow-spoon, cheese-scoop, and butter-knife, being required upon the table, are to be placed near the dishes, a knife and fork near the celery, and a pair of salad-scissors or a fork and spoon in the bowl with the salad.

The cheese may be served in a glass bowl, and handed round from right to left; or surrounded with the elegant serviette, and placed upon the cheese-cloth. The bread may be served as usual, piled up on a crochet cloth in a plated bread-basket placed in the centre.

Waiting at Table.--Much confusion is avoided by having an attendant upon each side of the table; or, if the party is large, more than one, according to the number. The usual number required for parties is given below; and if the income admit of it, the scale may be increased according to the second column, which will materially add to the comfort of the guests.

Every attendant should be neatly attired, have a white neckcloth and white gloves on, should know where all the articles required are, where the dishes are to be placed, and, in fact, be acquainted with the whole routine of the party; and therefore it is better to provide each one with a bill of fare.

When every guest is seated, a servant appointed for that purpose should stand by the side of each dish, with the right hand upon the cover; and as soon as grace is said, the cover is to be removed, and placed in some convenient part of the room. The plates for soup should then be taken singly from the pile opposite the person serving it, and carried to those guests who desire that particular soup, observing that ladies are to be attended to before gentlemen, and that these should commence from the head of the table, continuing until both sides are helped.

Soon after the soup has been served, the servants may pass down each side of the table, and ask each guest what they will take, helping them to the dish desired as soon as it can be procured. When champagne is given, it is handed round upon a waiter or salver at small parties, commencing at the right-hand side of the table from the top and bottom simultaneously, without any distinction as regards ladies or gentlemen. In large parties--and we prefer the arrangement ourselves even in small ones--the bottle being enveloped as far as the neck with a clean dinner-napkin, the wine is helped in the same order as before; but instead of being handed round on a salver, the servants pour the wine into the glass, at the right-hand side of each guest. By these means there is less danger of the glasses being broken by any awkward collision. The champagne is generally iced in summer, and cool in winter, and is served as soon as the soup is finished, or just after the guests have been helped to the second course of removes.

Liqueurs are handed round when sweets are on the table. Sauces are handed round in the sauce-boat, and when served, placed on the side-board or dinner-wagon; if only a family party, they are


[Illustration: An illustration of five knives with the blades pointing down.]




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returned to the table. Sweet sauces are handed round in glass dishes, and bottle sauces in a stand or basket made for that purpose.

In removing the dinner things, one servant goes round the table with a butler's tray, and the other removes and places the things upon it. The cloth is then brushed with a crumb-brush; or the two sides are turned in, and then the cloth dexterously jerked off the table, the lights replaced, and the dessert set on.

When knives, forks, and spoons are removed from dishes or plates, they should be placed in proper trays covered with napkins; one being used for the silver, the other for the steel articles.

When plates or dishes are removed from the table, great care is to be observed with respect to holding them horizontally, otherwise the gravy, syrup, or liquid, may injure the dresses of the guests.

In some circles, the fashion prevails of placing finger-glasses on table immediately preceding dessert; but in others, cut-glass bowls, partially filled with rose or orange flower water, iced in summer and lukewarm in winter, are handed down each side of the table, upon salvers; into these the guest dips the corner of the dinner napkin, and just touches the lips and the tips of the fingers.

> DESSERTS, TEAS, AND SUPPERS.

THE DESSERT.--The dessert may consist of merely two dishes of fruit for the top and bottom; dried fruits, biscuits, filberts, &c., for the sides and corners; and a cake for the centre.

When the party is large, and ices are served, the ice-plates are placed round the table, the ice-pails at both ends of the table, and dishes with wafer-biscuits, at the sides. Some persons have the ices served in glass dishes, which, together with the wafer biscuits, are handed round before the usual dessert.

When there is preserved ginger, it follows the ices, as it serves to stimulate the palate, so that the delicious coolness of the wines may be better appreciated.

The side and corner dishes usually put on for dessert, consist of:--Compôtes in glass dishes; frosted fruit served on lace-paper, in small glass dishes; preserved and dried fruits, in glass dishes; biscuits, plain and fancy; fresh fruit, served in dishes surrounded with leaves or moss; olives, wafer biscuits, brandy-scrolls, &c.

The centre dish may consist either of a savoy or an ornamental cake, on an elevated stand--a group of waxen fruit, surrounded with moss--a melon--a pine apple--grapes--or a vase of flowers.

Each plate should contain a knife, fork, and spoon, with two wine-glasses, arranged upon a d'oyley, as in Fig. 5. These are to be placed before each guest, and a finger-glass, with cold water in summer, and luke-warm water in winter, on the right of each plate; with grape-scissors, and melon knife and fork, before their respective dishes. Glass bowls containing sifted sugar, with pierced ladles, or others filled with cream, are to be placed near the centre dish, if they are required. A cut glass pitcher with a tumbler on either side should be


[Illustration: An illustration of a plate with a doyley in the middle of it with set of silverware and two wineglasses setting on top of it.]




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placed in a convenient part of the centre of the table.

The wine, either cooled or not, should be placed at both ends of the table, or at the bottom, if only a small party, the decanters being placed in castors, though this fashion is now nearly abolished.

Zests are put down after the dessert is removed, and consist chiefly of anchovy toasts, devilled poultry and game, and biscuits, gravy toast, grills, &c.

Coffee is the last thing served, and is generally handed round upon a salver; after this, the gentlemen withdraw to the drawing-room.

Tea.--After a dinner party, the tea is generally handed round by two servants, the one having tea and coffee, with hot milk, cream, and sugar upon one tray; the other having thinly cut and rolled bread and butter, biscuits and cake, upon another tray.

If served at an evening party or dance, a servant helps the guests to tea or coffee, which is arranged upon a side-table in a small room. The tea and coffee occupy the two ends of the table, on either side of the urn, which is placed in the centre and back. In front of the urn are ranged the sugar-candy for coffee, sugar, hot milk, cream, bread and butter, cake, and biscuits.

Tea, when only for a small party, may be brought in upon a tray, the tea and coffee-pots occupying the centre of the tray; the cups and saucers the front; and the hot milk, cream, slop-basin, and sugar, the ends. The urn is placed at the back of the tray; and the bread and butter, cut or not, with cake, biscuits, muffins, crumpets, or toast, at the sides.

Suppers.--The great secret of laying out a supper consists in arranging the china, glass, silver, linen, lights, confectionery, substantials, trifles, flowers, and other articles, with a due regard to form, color, size, and material.

A supper table should neither be too much crowded, nor too scanty, nor scattered and broken up with small dishes. Two dishes of the same description should not be placed near each other: dishes should not be heaped up as if for a ploughman's repast, but contain sufficient to make them look well, without being over or under-done as regards quantity.

Hot suppers are now seldom served; for people dine later than they did formerly; and besides being more expensive than cold ones, they also give more trouble.

The centre of the table is generally occupied by an épergne, vase of flowers, globe of fish upon an elevated stand, a plateau, or small fountain; around which are arranged:--Dried, preserved, frosted, or candied fruits; custards, jellies, and trifles, in glasses; and small biscuits. The top and bottom of the table are furnished with game, fowls, or meat; the sides have dishes of ham sliced; tongue; collared, potted, hung, and grated beef; brawn, mock or real; savory pies; lobsters; oysters; dressed crab or cray-fish; prawn pyramids; sandwiches of ham, beef, tongue, anchovy, or other savory morsels; tarts, tartlets; cake, biscuits; whipped and other creams; jellies, blanc-mange; caramel baskets; patties, &c.

> CHAPTER XXII.
TRUSSING AND CARVING.

Poultry.--The feathers must be plucked as soon as possible after killing--and the down singed off with lighted paper, the crop emptied by a slit cut in the back of the neck, the vent opened to clean out the entrails, the gall-bag carefully removed, and the liver and gizzard cleansed in cold water. The necks are to be cut off close to the body, the skin being pushed


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up above the part where it is cut, and afterwards drawn down and wrapped over the end of the neck. Before fastening it down, pour cold water through the body of the fowl. The back-bone and two bones leading to the pinions may be broken, and then the bird is to be trussed.

Carving.--The carving-knife for poultry and game is smaller and lighter than that for meat; the point is more peaked, and the handle longer.

In cutting up wild-fowl, duck, goose, or turkey, more prime pieces may be obtained by carving slices from pinion to pinion without making wings, which is a material advantage in distributing the bird when the party is large.

To Truss a Goose.--Pick and stub it clean, cut the feet off at the joint, and the pinion off at the first joint. Then cut off the neck close to the back, leaving the skin of the neck long enough to turn over the back. Pull out the throat, and tie a knot at the end. Loosen the liver and other matters at the breast end with the middle finger, and cut it open between the vent and the rump. Draw out the entrails, wipe the body out clean with a cloth, beat the breast-bone flat with a rolling pin, put a skewer into the wing, and draw the legs up close; put the skewer through the middle of the leg, and through the body, and the same on the other side. Put another skewer in the small of the leg, tuck it close down to the sidesman, run it through, and do the same on the other side. Cut off the end of the vent, and make a hole large enough for the passage of the rump, as by that means it will keep in the seasoning much better. The best parts are the breast slices; the fleshy part of the wing, which may be divided from the pinion; the thigh-bone, which may be easily divided in the joint from the leg-bone; the pinion; and next, the side-bones. The rump is a nice piece to those who like it; and the carcass is preferred by some to other parts.

To Truss a Turkey.--When the bird is picked carefully, break the leg bone close to the foot, hang on a hook, and draw out the strings from the thigh; cut the neck close off to the back, taking care to leave the crop-skin long enough to turn over the back. Remove the crop, and loosen the liver and gut at the throat end with the middle finger. Cut off the vent, remove the gut, pull out the gizzard with a crooked wire, and the liver will soon follow; but be careful not to break the gall. Wipe the inside perfectly clean with a wet cloth, then cut the breast-bone through on each side close to the back, and draw the legs close to the crop, then put a cloth on the breast, and beat the thigh bone down with a rolling-pin till it lies flat.

If the turkey is to be trussed for boiling, cut the first joint of the legs off; pass the middle finger into the inside, raise the skin of the legs and put them under the apron of the bird. Put a skewer into the joint of the wing and the middle joint of the leg, and run it through the body and the other leg and wing. The liver and gizzard must be put in the pinions, care being taken to open and previously remove the contents of the latter; the gall bladder must also be detached from the liver. Then turn the small end of the pinion on the back, and tie a packthread over the ends of the legs to keep them in their places.

If the turkey is to be roasted, leave the legs on, put a skewer in the joint of the wing, tuck the legs close up, and put the skewer through the middle of the legs and body; on the other side put another skewer in at the small part of the leg. Put it close on the outside of the sidesman, and push the skewer through, and the same on the other side. Put the liver and gizzard between the pinions,


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and turn the point of the pinion on the back. Then put, close above the pinions, another skewer through the body of the bird.

To Truss Fowls.--Fowls must be picked very clean, and the neck cut off close to the back. Take out the crop, and, with the middle finger, loosen the liver and other parts. Cut off the vent, draw it clean, and beat the breast-bone flat with a rolling pin.

If the fowl is to be boiled, cut off the nails of the feet, and tuck them down close to the legs. Put your finger into the inside, and raise the skin of the legs; then cut a hole in the top of the skin, and put the legs under. Put a skewer in the first joint of the pinion, and bring the middle of the leg close to it; put a skewer through the middle of the leg, and through the body, and then do the same on the other side. Open the gizzard, remove the contents, and wash it well; remove the gall-bladder from the liver. Put the gizzard and the liver in the pinions, turn the points on the back, and tie a string over the tops of the legs, to keep them in their proper places.

If the fowl is to be roasted, put a skewer in the first joint of the pinion, and bring the middle of the leg close to it. Put the skewer through the middle of the leg, and through the body, and do the same on the other side. Put another skewer in the small of the leg, and through the sidesman; do the same on the other side, and then put another through the skin of the feet, which should have the nails cut off.

The prime parts of a fowl, whether roasted or boiled, are the wings, breast and merry-thought; and next to these, the neck-bones and side-bones; the legs are rather coarse--of a boiled fowl, however, the legs are rather more tender than a roasted one; of the leg of a fowl the thigh is the better part, and therefore when given to any one should be separated from the drum-stick, which is done by passing the knife underneath, in the hollow, and turning the thigh-bone back from the leg-bone.

To Truss Chickens.--Pick and draw them in the same manner as you would fowls; but, as their skins are very tender, plunge them into scalding water, and remove, when the feathers will come off readily.

If they are to be boiled, cut off the nails, notch the sinews on each side of the joint, put the feet in at the vent, and then peel the rump. Draw the skin tight over the legs, put a skewer in the first joint of the pinion, and bring the middle of the legs close. Put the skewer through the middle of the legs, and through the body; and do the same on the other side. Clean the gizzard, and remove the gall from the liver; put them into the pinions, and turn the points on the back.

If for roasting, cut off the feet, put a skewer in the first joint of the pinions, and bring the middle of the legs close. Run the skewer through the middle of the legs and body, and do the same on the other side. Put another skewer into the sidesman, put the legs between the apron and the sidesman, and run the skewer through. Having cleaned the liver and gizzard, put them under the pinions, turn the points on the back, and pull the breast-skin over the neck.

To Truss Pheasants.--Pick them clean, cut a slit at the back of the neck, take out the crop, loosen the liver, and gut the breast with the fore-finger; then cut off the vent, and draw them. Cut off the pinion at the first joint, and wipe out the inside with the pinion. Beat the breast-bone flat with a rolling-pin, put a skewer in the pinion, and bring the middle of the legs close. Then run the skewer through the legs, body, and the other pinion, twist the head, and put it on the


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end of the skewer, with the bill fronting the breast. Put another skewer into the sidesman, and put the legs close on each side of the apron, and then run the skewer through all. If you wish the cock-pheasant to look well, leave the beautiful feathers on the head, and cover with paper to protect them from the fire. Save the long feathers from the tail; and when cooked, stick them into the rump before sending to table.

If the pheasants are for boiling, put the legs in the same manner as in trussing a fowl.

To Truss Pigeons.--Pick clean, take off the neck close to the back; then remove the crop, cut off the vent, and draw out the entrails and gizzard, but leave the liver, as a pigeon has no gall-bladder.

If for roasting, cut off the toes, cut a slit in one of the legs, and put the other through it. Draw the leg tight to the pinion, put a skewer through the pinion, legs, and body, and with the handle of the knife break the breast flat. Clean the gizzard, and put it under one of the pinions, and turn the points on the back.

If for boiling or stewing, cut the feet off at the joint, turn the legs, and stick them in the sides, close to the pinions. If for a pie, they must be done in the same manner.

To Truss Wild Fowl.--Pick clean, cut off the neck close to the back, and, with the middle finger, loosen the liver and other parts. Cut off the pinions at the first joint; then cut a slit between the vent and the rump, and draw them clean. Clean them properly with the long feathers on the wing, cut off the nails, and turn the feet close to the legs. Put a skewer in the pinion, pull the legs close to the breast, and run the skewer through the legs, body, and the other pinion. Cut off the end of the vent, and put the rump through it.

All kinds of wild-fowl are to be trussed thus:

To Truss Woodcock, Plover and Snipe.--If these birds are not very fresh, great care must be taken in picking them, as they are very tender to pick at any time; for even the heat of the hand will sometimes take off the skin, which will destroy the beauty of the bird. When picked clean, cut the pinions in the first joint, and with the handle of a knife beat the breast-bone flat. Turn the legs close to the thighs, and tie them together at the joints. Put the thighs close to the pinions, put a skewer into the pinions, and run it through the thighs, body, and other pinions. Skin the head, turn it, take out the eyes, and put the head on the point of the skewer, with the bill close to the breast. These birds must never be drawn.

[Illustration: An illustration of dressed and trussed wild fowl.]

To Truss small Birds.--Pick well, cut off their heads, and the pinions of the first joint. Beat the breast-bone flat, and turn the feet close to the legs, and put one into the other. Draw out the gizzard, and run a skewer through the middle of the bodies. Tie the skewer fast to the spit when you put them down to roast.

To Truss Hare or Rabbit.-- A hare or rabbit should be paunched, or cleaned, as soon as it is killed. The inside should be kept dry and peppered. When trussed, the sinews of the hind-legs must be cut, and the legs turned towards the head and fastened to the sides. The fore-legs must be turned to meet the hind-legs, and fastened, with slight skewers to the body. The head is thrown back and kept in place by a skewer passed through it. The stuffing is put in, and the skin sewed up. A string fastens all compactly together. The ears of a rabbit are to be cut off when roasted or boiled.

> CARVING.

Ladies ought especially to make carving a study; at their own houses, they grace the table, and should be enabled to perform the task allotted to them with sufficient skill to prevent remark or the calling forth of eager proffers of assistance from good-natured visitors near, who probably would not present any better claim to a neat performance.

Carving presents no difficulties; it requires simply knowledge. All display of exertion or violence are in very bad taste; for, if not an evidence of the want of ability on the part of the carver, they present a very strong testimony of the toughness of a joint or the more than full age of a bird: in both cases they should be avoided. A good knife of moderate size, sufficient length of handle, and very sharp, is requisite; for a lady it should be light, and smaller than that used by gentlemen. Fowls are very easily carved, and joints, such as loins, breasts, fore-quarters, &c. The butcher should have strict injunctions to separate the joints well.

The dish upon which the article to be carved is placed should be conveniently near to the carver, so that he has full control over it; for if far off nothing can prevent an ungraceful appearance, nor a difficulty in performing that which in its proper place could be achieved with ease.

In serving fish, some nicety and care must be exercised; here lightness of hand and dexterity of management is necessary, and can only be acquired by practice. The flakes which, in such fish as salmon and cod are large, should not be broken in serving, for the beauty of the fish is then destroyed, and the appetite for it injured. In addition to the skill in the use of the knife, there is also required another description of knowledge, and that is an acquaintance with the best parts of the joint, fowl, or fish being carved. Thus, in a haunch of venison, the fat, which is a favorite, must be served with each slice; in the shoulder of mutton there are some delicate cuts in the under part. The breast and wings are the best parts of a fowl, the trail of a woodcock on a toast is the choicest part of the bird. In fish a part of the roe, melt, or liver should accompany the piece of fish served; the list, however, is too numerous to mention here; and, indeed, the knowledge can only be acquired by experience. In large establishments the gross dishes are carved at the buffet by the butler, but in general they are placed upon the table.

Fishis served with a fish-slice, or the new fish-knife and fork, and requires very little carving, care being required, however, not to break the flakes, which, from their size, add much to the beauty of cod and salmon. Serve part of the roe, melt, or liver, to each person. The heads of carp, part of those of cod and salmon, sounds of cod, and fins of turbot, are likewise considered delicacies. Should be deprived of the head and tail by passing the slice across in the direction of lines 1 and 2; they should then be divided down the back, so as to assist each person to a slice; but if less is required, the thicker end should be given, as it is more esteemed. If the roe is asked for, it will be found between 1 and 2.

[Illustration: An illustration of two mackerel laying side by side on a platter.]

Barbel, Carp, Haddock, Herring, Perch, Whiting, &c., should be helped the same


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as Mackerel; remembering that the head of the Carp is esteemed a delicacy.

[Illustration: An illustration of cod's head on a plate.]

Pass the fish-slice or knife from 1 to 6 down to the bone; then help pieces from between 1-2, and 3-4, and with each slice give a piece of the sound, which lies under the back-bone, and is procured by passing the knife in the direction 4-5. There are many delicate parts about the head, particularly the oyster, which is the cheek, below the eye; and a great deal of the jelly kind, which lies about the jaws. The tongue aud palate are considered delicacies, and are obtained by passing the slice or a spoon into the mouth.

[Illustration: An illustration of a salmon with head and tail removed.]

Give a portion of the back and belly to each person, or as desired. If a whole salmon is served, remember that the choice parts are next the head, the thin part is the next best, and the tail the least esteemed. Make an incision along the back, 9 to 10, and another from 1 to 2, and 3 to 4; cut the thickest part, between 5-6, 10-2, for the lean; and 7-8 for the fat. When the fish is very thick, do not help too near the bone, as the flavor and color are not so good.

Although carving with ease and elegance is a very necessary accomplishment, yet most people are lamentably deficient not only in the art of dissecting winged game and poultry, but also in the important point of knowing the parts most generally esteemed. Practice only can make good carvers; but the directions here given, with accompanying plates, will enable any one to disjoint a fowl, and avoid the awkwardness of disfiguring a joint.

In the first place, whatever is to be carved should be set in a dish sufficiently large for turning it if necessary; but the dish itself should not be moved from its position, which should be so close before the carver as only to leave room for the plates. The carving-knife should be light, sharp, well-tempered, and of a size proportioned to the joint, strength being less required than address in the manner of using it. Large solid joints, such as ham, fillet of veal, and salt beef, cannot be cut too thin; but mutton, roast pork, and the other joints of veal, should never be served in very slender slices.

A Round (buttock) or Aitch-bone of Beef.--Pare off from the upper part, of either, a slice from the whole surface, of about half an inch thick, and put it aside; then cut thin slices of both lean and fat, in the direction from a to b. The soft fat, which resembles marrow, lies at the back of the aitch-bone, below c, but the firm fat must be cut in slender horizontal slices at a, and is much better than the soft when eaten cold.

[Illustration: An illustration of a beef roast.]

Ribs of Beef.--Cut along the whole length of the bone, from end to end, a to


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b, either commencing in the centre or at one side, having the thin end towards you; but if cut from the bone and formed into a round, with the fat end doubled into the centre, it must then be cut in the same manner as the round of beef.

[Illustration: An illustration of a piece of beef on a plate.]

Brisket of Beefmust be carved in the direction 1 and 2, quite down to the bone, after cutting off the outside, which should be about three-quarters of an inch thick.

Sirloin of Beef.--Cut in the same manner as the ribs, commencing either at the centre or the side, as from a to b. The under part should be cut across the bone, as at c for the lean, and d for the rich fat; many persons prefer the under to the upper part, the meat being more tender.

[Illustration: An illustration of piece of meat laying on its side.]

Fillet of Veal.--Carve it in the same manner as the round of beef; but the upper slice should be cut somewhat thinner, as most persons like a little of the brown, and a portion of it should be served along with each slice, together with a slice of the fat and stuffing, which is skewered within the flap.

[Illustration: An illustration of a piece of meat with two skewers poking out of the right side.]

Neck of Veal.--Cut across the ribs, as at a to b: the small bones, as at c to d, being cut off, divided, and served separately, for it is not only a tedious, but a vulgar operation to attempt to disjoint the ribs.

[Illustration: An illustration of a piece of meat with bones protruding from the bottom.]

Loin of Veal.--The joint is placed in the dish in the same manner as a sirloin of beef, but should be turned up, and the whole of the kidney and fat cut out; the fat being usually put upon a dry toast and served as marrow. The loin is then returned to its former position, and the meat should be cut across the ribs as in the neck, serving it with a slice of kidney.

[Illustration: An illustration of a piece of meat on a platter.]

Knuckle of Vealis to be carved in the direction 1-2. The most delicate fat lies about the part 4, and if cut in the line 3-4, the two bones, between which the marrowy fat lies, will be divided.

Breast of Veal,being very gristly, is


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not easily divided into pieces. In order, therefore, to avoid this difficulty, put your knife at a about four inches from the edge of the thickest part (which is called "the brisket"), and cut through it to b, to separate it from the long ribs: cut the short bones across, as at d, d, d, and the long ones as at c, c, c; ask which is chosen, and help accordingly. The remaining scrag part is seldom served at table, but forms an excellent stew when dressed in the French mode.

[Illustration: An illustration of a piece of meat.]

Shoulder of Veal.--Cut in the same manner as a shoulder of mutton, beginning on the under side.

Calf's Head.--Cut slices from a to b in the figure, which describes only half the head, letting the knife go close to the bone. Many like the eye at c, which you must cut out with the point of your knife, and divide in two, along with some of the glutinous bits which surround it. If the jaw-bone be taken off, there will be found some fine lean, and under the head is the palate, which is reckoned a delicacy.

[Illustration: An illustration of a calf's head on a platter.]

The tongue and brains are dished separately, but served in small portions along with the head.

Leg of Mutton.--The best part of a leg of mutton, whether boiled or roasted, is midway between the knuckle and the broad end. Begin to help there from the roundest and thickest part, by cutting slices, not too thin, from b down to c. This part is the most juicy; but many prefer the knuckle, which, in fine mutton, will be very tender, though dry. There are very fine slices in the back of the leg; therefore, if the party be large, turn it up and cut the broad end; not across in the direction you did the other side, but longwise, from the thick end to the knuckle-bone. To cut out the cramp-bone, which some persons look upon as a delicacy, pass your knife under in the direction of e, and it will be found between that and d.

[Illustration: An illustration of a skinned leg of mutton.]

Shoulder of Mutton,though commonly looked upon as a very homely joint, is by many preferred to the leg, as there is much variety of flavor, as well as texture, in both the upper and under parts.

The figure represents it laid in the dish as always served, with its back uppermost. Cut through it from a down to the blade-bone at b; afterwards slice it along each side of the blade-bone from c


[Illustration: An illustration of a skinned mutton shoulder.]




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c b. The prime part of the fat lies on the outer edge, and is to be cut in thin slices in the direction of d.

The under part, as here represented, contains many favorite pieces of different sorts, as, crosswise, in slices, near the shank-bone at b; and, lengthwise, in broad pieces, at the further end a; as well as in the middle and sides in the manner designated at c and d.

[Illustration: An illustration of mutton shoulder turned upside down.]

Should it be intended to reserve a portion of the joint to be eaten cold, all this undermost part should be first cut away and served separately, both as it eats better hot than cold, and as the upper remaining part will appear more sightly in the table.

Loin of Mutton.--Cut the joints into chops and serve them separately; or cut slices the whole length of the loin; or run the knife along the chine-bone, and then slice it, the fat and lean together, as shown in the cut of the saddle, in the next column.

Neck of Mutton.--It should be prepared for table as follows:--Cut off the scrag; have the chine-bone carefully sawn off, and also the top of the long bones (about an inch and a half,) and the thin part turned under; carve in the direction of the bones.

The scrag of mutton, when roasted, is very frequently separated from the ribs of the neck, and in that case the meat and bones may be helped together.

Saddle of Mutton.--Cut in long and rather thin slices from the tail to the end, beginning at each side close to the back-bone, from a to b, with slices of fat from c to d; or along the bone which divides the two loins, so as to loosen from it the whole of the meat from that side which you then cut crosswise, thus giving with each slice both fat and lean. The tail end is usually divided and partly turned up. Some butchers also skewer the kidneys across the incision, but it is not usual at genteel tables, and the incision is better omitted.

[Illustration: An Illustration of a piece of mutton.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a piece of lamb turned upright.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a piece of venison turned upright.]

Haunch of Mutton.--A haunch is the leg and part of the loin, and is cut in the same manner as a haunch of venison.

Fore-Quarter of Lamb.--Pass the knife under the shoulder in the direction of a, c, b, d, so as to separate it from the ribs without cutting the meat too much off the bones. A Seville orange or lemon should then be divided, the halves sprinkled with salt and pepper, and the juice squeezed over the under part. A little cold or melted butter is then put between both parts, after which the shoulder is placed in a separate dish to be helped by some other person. Divide the ribs from d to e, and then serve the neck f, and breast g, as may be chosen.

Haunch of Venison.--Have the joint lengthwise before you, the knuckle being the farthest point. Cut from a to b, but be careful not to let out the gravy; then cut along the whole length from a down to d. The knife should slope in making the first cut, and then the whole of the gravy will be received in the well. The greater part of the fat, which is the favorite portion, will be found at the left side, and care must be taken to serve some with each slice.

Neck of Venison.--Cut across the ribs diagonally; or it may be cut in slices the whole length of the neck. The first method is equally good, and much more economical.

[Illustration: An illustration of a leg of pork.]

A leg of Pork,whether boiled or roasted, is carved the same. Commence about midway, between the knuckle and the thick end, and cut thin deep slices from either side of the line 1 to 2.

Pork.--In helping the roast loin and leg, your knife must follow the direction of the scores cut by the cook upon the skin which forms the crackling, as it is too crisp for being conveniently divided, and cannot therefore be cut across the bones of the ribs, as in loin of mutton. The scores upon the roasted leg are, however, always marked too broadly for single cuts; the crackling must therefore be lifted up from the back to allow of thin slices being cut from the meat; the seasoning is under the skin at the larger end.

[Illustration: An illustration of a ham wrapped in decorative packaging.]

Ham.--Serve it with the back upwards, sometimes ornamented, and generally having, as in France, the shank-bone covered with cut paper. Begin in the middle by cutting long and very thin slices from a to b, continuing down to the thick fat at the broad end. The first slice should be wedge-shaped, that all the others may be cut slanting, which gives a handsome appearance to them. Many persons, however, prefer the hock at d as having more flavor; it is then carved lengthwise from c to d.

[Illustration: An illustration of a tongue laying on a platter.]

A Tongueshould be cut across, nearly


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through the middle, at the line 1, and thin slices taken from each side; a portion of the fat, which is situated at the root of the tongue, being helped with each.

[Illustration: An illustration of a pig split at the breast and laying flat on a platter.]

Sucking-pig.--The cook usually divides the body before it is sent to table--as thus--and garnishes the dish with the jaws and ears.

Separate a shoulder from one side, and then the leg, according to the direction given by the line along the carcass. The ribs are then to be divided; and an ear or jaw presented with them, and plenty of sauce and stuffing. The joints may either be divided into two each, or pieces may be cut from them. The ribs are reckoned the finest part; but some people prefer the neck end, between the shoulders.

[Illustration: An illustration of a rabbit trussed for cooking.]

Rabbits.

--Put the point of the knife under the shoulder at b, and so cut all the way down to the rump, along the sides of the backbone, in the limb b, a, cutting it in moderately thick slices; or, after removing the shoulders and legs, cut the back crosswise in four or five pieces; but this can only be done when the rabbit is very young, or when it is boned. To separate the legs and shoulders, put the knife between the leg and back, and give it a little turn inwards at the joint, which you must endeavor to hit, and not to break by force. The shoulders may be removed by a circular cut around them. The back is the most delicate part, and next to that the thighs. A portion of the stuffing should be served with each slice. The brains and ears of sucking-pig and rabbit are also considered epicurean titbits, which must not be neglected; wherefore, when every one is helped, cut off the head, put your knife between the upper and lower jaw and divide them, which will enable you to lay the upper flat on your plate; then put the point of the knife into the centre, and cut the head into two.

[Illustration: An illustration of a cooked, trussed rabbit laying on its stomach.]

Boiled Rabbits.--The legs and shoulders should be first taken off, and then the back cut across into two parts, which is easily done by a bend of the knife in the joint underneath, about the middle of the back. The back is the best, and some of the liver should always accompany it.

The carving of both WINGED GAME and POULTRY requires more delicacy of hand and nicety in hitting the joints than the cutting of large pieces of meat, and, to be neatly done, requires considerable practice.

[Illustration: An illustration of a dressed turkey with skewers through the wings and legs.]

Roast Turkey.--Cut long slices from


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each side of the breast down to the ribs, beginning at a b from the wing to the breastbone. Then turn the turkey upon the side nearest you, and cut off the leg and wing; when the knife is passed between the limbs and the body, and pressed outward, the joint will be easily perceived. Then turn the turkey on the other side, and cut off the leg and wing. Separate the drumsticks from the leg bones, and the pinions from the wings; it is hardly possible to mistake the joint. Cut the stuffing in thin slices, length-wise. Take off the neck-bones, which are two triangular bones on each side of the breast; this is done by passing the knife from the back under the blade part of each neck-bone, until it reaches the end: by raising the knife the other branch will easily crack off. Separate the carcass from the back by passing the knife lengthwise from the neck downward. Turn the back upwards and lay the edge of the knife across the backbone about midway between the legs and wings; at the same moment, place the fork within the lower part of the turkey, and lift it up; this will make the back-bone crack at the knife. The croup, or lower part of the back, being cut off, put it on the plate with the rump from you, and split off the side-bones by forcing the knife through from the rump to the other end.

The choicest parts of a turkey are the side-bones, the breast and the thigh-bones. The breast and wings are called light meat; the thigh-bones and side-bones dark meat. When a person declines expressing a preference, it is polite to help to both kinds.

[Illustration: An illustration of a dressed turkey with perforations in its breast, a skewer through its wings and legs tucked inside.]

Boiled Turkeyis carved in the same way as the roast, the only difference being in the trussing; the legs in the boiled being, as here shown, drawn into the body, and in the roast skewered.

Roast Fowl.--Slip the knife between the leg and body, and cut to the bone; then with the fork turn the leg back, and the joint will give way if the bird is not old. Take the wing off in the direction of a to b, only dividing the joint with your knife. When the four quarters are thus removed, take off the merry-thought from c, and the neck bones; these last, by putting in the knife at d, and pressing it, will break off from the part that sticks to the breast. The next thing is to divide the breast from the carcass, by cutting through the tender ribs close to the breast, quite down to the tail. Then lay the back upwards, put your knife into the bone half way from the neck to the


[Illustration: An illustration of a roasted fowl and a diagram on it indicating how it should be carved.]




[Illustration: An illustration of top of a boiled fowl.]




[Illustration: An illustration of the bottom of a boiled fowl.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a fowl breast with a knife removing the wing.]




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rump, and on raising the lower end it will separate readily. Turn the rump from you, take off the two sidesmen, and the whole will be done. To separate the thigh from the drumstick of the leg insert the knife into the joint as above. It requires practice to hit the joint at the first trial. The breast and wings are considered the best parts.

If the bird be a capon, or large, and roasted, the breast may be cut into slices in the same way as a pheasant.

The difference in the carving of boiled and roast fowls consists only in the breast of the latter being always served whole, and the thigh-bone being generally preferred to the wing.

[Illustration: An illustration of a roast goose laying breast up, has perforations in the breast and a skewer through the wings.]

Geese.--Cut thin slices from the breast at a to b; the wing is generally separated as in turkeys, but the leg is almost constantly reserved for broiling. Serve a little of the seasoning from the inside by cutting a circular slice in the apron at c.

Pheasant.--Slip the knife between the leg and the breast: cut off a wing small from a to b; then slice the breast, and you will have two or three handsome cuts. Cut off the merry-thought by passing the knife under it towards the neck, and cut all the other parts as in a fowl. The breast, wings, and merry-thought are the most esteemed: but the thigh has a high flavor.

[Illustration: An illustration of a pheasant dress with skewers through wings and legs.]

Partridge.--It may be cut up in the same manner as a fowl; but the bird being small, it is unusual to divide it into more than three portions--the leg and wing being left together, and the breast helped entire; the back, being only served along with some of the other parts. If the birds are very young, and the party not over large, the whole body is not unfrequently only separated into two pieces, by one cut of the knife from head to tail.

[Illustration: An illustration of a partridge dressed wings skewered and the legs crossed over the breast and skewered.]

Quails.--Generally helped whole.

Grouse, Snipe,and Woodcock.--Proceed as for partridge, except that the trail or entrails of the two latter is served up on toast. As regards these different sorts of game, the thigh of the pheasant and the woodcock is the best, and the breast and wing of the partridge and grouse; but the most epicurean morsel of all is the trail of the woodcock served up on toast. Smaller birds should always be helped as they are roasted, whole.

Wild-Duck, Widgeon,and most sorts of water-fowl.--Make two or three incisions, as long slices, into the breast, on which a glass of hot port-wine is poured; have ready a lemon cut in half, on one side covered with salt, and on the other with cayenne pepper. Put both together, then squeeze the juice over the breast;


[Illustration: An illustration of a dressed pigeon breast up with legs tucked into the skin and wings skewered.]




[Illustration: An illustration of a pigeon backside up with a skewer through its wings and legs tucked inside the skin.]




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after which the slices and limbs may be served round.

Pigeons.--Cut them in half, through both back and breast; the lower part is generally thought the best.

Fish requires very little carving; it should be carefully helped with a fish-slice, which, not being sharp, prevents the flakes from being broken, and in salmon and cod these are large and add much to their beauty.

> NAMES OF THE VARIOUS JOINTS IN ANIMALS.

> 1.--BEEF.

[Illustration: An illustration of a steer with a diagram drawn on it indicating the different cuts of meat.]

> Hind Quarter.

1. Sirloin.

2. Rump.

3. Aitch-Bone.

4. Buttock.

5. Mouse-Buttock.

6. Veiny Piece.

7. Thick Flank.

8. Thin Flank.

9. Leg.

10. Fore-ribs; 5 ribs.

> Fore Quarter.

11. Middle-rib; 4 ribs.

12. Chuck; 3 ribs.

13. Shoulder, or Leg of Mutton Piece.

14. Brisket.

15. Clod.

16. Neck or Sticking Piece.

17. Shin.

18. Cheek.

> 2.--Mutton or Lamb.

[Illustration: An illustration of a sheep with a diagram drawn on it indicating the different cuts of meat.]

1. Leg.

2. Loin, best end.

3. Loin, chump end.

4. Neck, best end.

5. Neck, scrag end.

6. Shoulder.

7. Breast.

8. Head.

A Chine is two Necks.

A Saddle is two Loins.

> 3.--Pork.

[Illustration: An illustration of a pig with a diagram drawn on it indicating the different cuts of meat.]

1. The Spare-rib.

2. The Hand.

3. The Belly or Spring.

4. Fore-loin.

5. Hind-loin.

6. Leg.

7. Head.

> 4.-- Veal.

[Illustration: An illustration of a calf with a diagram drawn on it indicating the different cuts of meat.]

1. Loin, best end.

2. Loin, chump end.

3. Fillet.

4. Hind-knuckle.

5. Fore-knuckle.

6. Neck, best end.

7. Neck, scrag end.

8. Blade-bone.

9. Breast, best end.

10. Breast, Brisket end.

11. Head.

>

> 5.-- Venison.

[Illustration: An illustration of a deer with a diagram drawn on it indicating the different cuts of meat.]

1. Haunch.

2. Neck.

3. Shoulder.

4. Breast.

> CHAPTER XXIII. CULINARY UTENSILS.*

THE various utensils used for the preparation and keeping of food are made

*For the cuts in this chapter, and for the engravings of house-keeping utensils throughout the book


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the Publishers are indebted to the courtesy of Messrs. J. &c. BERRIAN, whose establishment is at 601 Broadway, between Prince and Houston streets, New York.

either of metal, glass, pottery ware, or wood; each of which is better suited to some particular purposes than the others. Metallic utensils are quite unfit for many uses, and the knowledge of this is necessary to the preservation of health in general, and sometimes to the prevention of immediate dangerous consequences.

[Illustration: An illustration of a rectangular metal box housing four moulds and a lid.]

The metals commonly used in the construction of these vessels are silver, copper, brass, tin, iron, and lead. Silver is preferable to all others, because it cannot be dissolved by any of the substances used as food. Brimstone unites with silver, and forms a thin brittle crust over it that gives it the appearance of being tarnished. The discoloring of silver spoons used with eggs arises from the brimstone contained in eggs. Nitre or saltpetre has also a slight effect upon silver, but nitre and silver seldom remain long enough together in domestic uses to require any particular caution.

[Illustration: A metal pan with a handle. The inside of the pan has a decorative design.]

Copper and brass are both liable to be dissolved by vinegar, acid fruits, and pearlash. Such solutions are highly poisonous, and great caution should be used to prevent accidents of the kind. Vessels made of these metals are generally tinned, that is, lined with a thin coating of a mixed metal, containing both tin and lead. Neither acids, nor any thing containing pearlash, should ever be suffered to remain above an hour in vessels of this kind, as the tinning is dissolvable by acids, and the coating is seldom perfect over the surface of the copper or brass.

[Illustration: An illustration of a pan made of seven round cups, four legs and a handle.]

The utensils made of what is called block tin are constructed of iron plates coated with tin. This is as liable to be dissolved as the tinning of copper or brass vessels, but iron is not an unwholesome substance, if even a portion of it should be dissolved and mixed in the food. Iron is therefore one of the safest metals for the construction of culinary utensils; and the objection to its more extensive use only rests upon its liability to rust, so that it requires more cleaning and soon decays. Some articles of food, such as quinces, orange-peel, artichokes, &c., are blackened by remaining in iron vessels, which therefore must not be used for them.

Leaden vessels are very unwholesome, and should never be used for milk and cream if it be ever likely to stand till it become sour. They are unsafe also for the purpose of keeping salted meats.

The best kind of pottery ware is oriental china, because the glazing is a perfect


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glass, which cannot be dissolved, and the whole substance is so compact that liquid cannot penetrate it. Many of the English pottery wares are badly glazed, and as the glazing is made principally of lead, it is necessary to avoid putting vinegar and other acids into them. Acids and greasy substances penetrate into unglazed wares, excepting the strong stone ware; or into those of which the glazing is cracked, and hence give a bad flavor to any thing they are used for afterwards. They are quite unfit, therefore, for keeping pickles or salted meats. Glass vessels are infinitely preferable to any pottery ware but oriental china, and should be used whenever the occasion admits of it.

Wooden vessels are very proper for keeping many articles of food, and should always be preferred to those lined with lead. If any substance has fermented or become putrid in a wooden cask or tub, it is sure to taint the vessel so as to produce a similar effect upon any thing that may be put into it in future. It is useful to char the insides of these wooden vessels before they are used, by burning wooden shavings, so as to coat the insides with a crust of charcoal.

As whatever contaminates food in any way must be sure, from the repetition of its baneful effects, to injure the health, a due precaution with respect to all culinary vessels is necessary for its more certain preservation. There is a kind of hollow iron ware lined with enamel, which is superior to every other utensil for sauces or preserves; indeed it is preferable for every purpose.

A kitchen should always be well furnished; there is no necessity that it should be profusely so, but there should be a sufficiency of every thing which can aid in producing the dishes preparing, with the success which is so essential to the gratification of the palate. A good workman cannot work well with bad tools, neither can good cooks do justice to their proficiency, if they possess not the necessary utensils suitable to the various modes of cooking. And when this important point has been realized, cleanliness in every article used should be scrupulously observed; no utensil should be suffered to be put away dirty; it not only injures the article itself materially, to say nothing of the impropriety of the habit, but prevents its readiness for use on any sudden occasion. No good cook or servant would be guilty of such an act; those who are do so either from laziness or want of system, or a nature naturally dirty; if a very strong hint will not suffice, it is of little use speaking out. A servant who is inherently dirty or slovenly, should never be retained; it is better and easier to change frequently until the mistress is suited, however unpleasant frequent changes may prove, than Quixotically attempt to cure a person of this description. Cleanliness is the most essential ingredient in the art of cooking, and at any personal sacrifice should be maintained in the kitchen.

The fixtures or fittings of a kitchen depend upon the builder, and in modern houses sufficient attention is paid to the situations of the range, dresser, larder, &c., to embody convenience.

[Illustration: An illustration of a large and small mix bowl both with the appropriate sized wire whisks inside the bowl.]

In furnishing a kitchen, there should be every thing likely to be required, but not one article more than is wanted. Unnecessary profusion creates a litter;


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and a deficiency too often sacrifices the perfection of a dish. The following articles, of which we give engravings, are requisite.

[Illustration: An illustration of a pot inside of boiler halved to show how they function.]

This is a very useful apparatus, on the principle of the Bain Marie, or Water Bath.

It consists of a block-tin saucepan to hold water, and a smaller one, with cover of the same material to fit within, but not to reach to the bottom of the external saucepan. This effectually prevents the common accident of burning what is intended to be boiled; for the reason that the heat cannot be increased beyond boiling or 212°; a represents the inner, and b the external saucepan; the cover seen at the top will fit both saucepans.

A Double Floored Griddle, the best iron Griddle in use. Very thick; therefore it gets hot or cold gradually, retains the heat longer, cooks better, and smokes less than ordinary griddles.

[Illustration: ]

[Illustration: A long cyclindrical mallet with ridges on the working end.]

A Beefsteak Pounder for making beefsteak tender.

[Illustration: An illustration of wooden mallet.]

Wooden Moulds for moulding butter.

[Illustration: An illustration of two blocks of wood with a design of a swan craved in them.]

For working butter into form, similar to Butter Hands, the

[Illustration: An illustration of a square board with a butter knife laying across it.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a rectangular block of wood with six designs carved into it.]

The pastry is rolled into this and forms half the biscuit; others are made and fastened together, either before or after being baked.

[Illustration: An illustration of a large knife with a decorative side on the one side of the blade and a sharp edge on the other.]

For cutting bread; it can be regulated by screws at the ends to cut any thickness.

[Illustration: An illustration of two devices that resemble bells in there shape, but inside is carved a swan.]

A mould and stamp for butter by which you can have the full size of the stamp, and the butter any thickness.

[Illustration: An illustration of a rectangular, metal box with a handle, long legs and an open side.]

Tin Apple Roasters are often made with a shelf, making two divisions, roasting double the quantity.

[Illustration: An illustration of a wooden mallet shaped like a bell with a long handle.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a deep square metal box with handles and a metal grate on top.]

To wash Ivory, Pearl, or other handled knives thoroughly, without allowing the greasy water to come in contact with and thereby soil or stain the handles.

[Illustration: An illustration of a rectangular metal box with a lid and handle.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a deep, oval pan with handles.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a glass-shaped,metal container with a lid and a handle sticking out of the side.]

It will boil a pint of water in three minutes.

[Illustration: An illustration of 4 different shaped biscuit cutters.]

[Illustration: An illustration of five cake and vegetable cutters shaped like a fleur de lis, swan, giraffe, seagull, and a flower.]

[Illustration: An illustration of three shallow rectangular pans.]

[Illustration: An illustration of three pans shaped like a heart, circle and diamond.]

[Illustration: An illustration of three small, round, decorative jelly moulds.]

[Illustration: An illustration of three large oblong and round jelly moulds.]

[Illustration: An illustration of two jelly or cake moulds both round one with a cylinder.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a device with a handle on one end is a metal pincher used to open a can.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a rectangular box with no ends in the center of the box is a metal blade laying diagonally and parallel to the surface of the box.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a sharp curly pointed knife with a decorative handle.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a cup with a handle on the very edge of it.]

[Illustration: A deep, small pan with a lid and long handle.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a deep, square pan with two round rings on opposite corners.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a pail with a handle]

[Illustration: An illustration of a short bladed knife with a round hilt and a handle longer than the blade.]

[Illustration: An illustration of two knife sharpeners one with round stones in a handle and the other with two long strips sticking out of it.]

[Illustration: ]

[Illustration: An illustration of two pieces of grill that have a handle and can be fastened shut.]

[Illustration: An illustration of two different types of corkscrews one has a handle that allows you to pull the cork out once the corkscrew is screwed in the cork.]

[Illustration: An illustration of a board with a handle and a metal blade laying parallel and at a diagnal angle in the board.]

Saucepan Digester.--The great importance of the digester, not only to poor families, but to the public in general, in producing a larger quantity of wholesome and nourishing food, by a much cheaper method than has ever been hitherto obtained, is a matter of such serious and interesting consideration, that it cannot be too earnestly recommended to those who make economy in the support of their families an object of their attention. The chief, and indeed the only thing necessary to be done, is to direct a proper mode of using it to advantage; and this mode is both simple and easy. Care must be taken in filling the digester, to leave room enough for the steam to pass off through the valve at the top of the cover. This may be done by filling the digester only three parts full of water and bruised bones or meat, which it is to be noticed are all to be put in together. It must then be placed near a slow fire, so as only to simmer, and this it must do for the space of eight or ten hours. After this has been done, the soup is to be strained through a hair sieve or cullender, in order to separate any bits of bones. The soup is then to be put into the digester again, and after whatever vegetables, spices, &c., are thought necessary are added, the whole is to be well boiled together for an hour or two, and it will then be fit for immediate use.

Any thing that is to be warmed and sent to table a second time should be put into a basin or jar, placed in hot water, which is not permitted to come to the boiling point. If allowed to boil, the meat will harden, or the sauce will be reduced and become thick: by avoiding these chances the flavor will be preserved, and the viands may be warmed up more than once without injury. The steam-apparatus now employed in most kitchens is admirably adapted to this purpose, since the heat can be regulated to the required temperature.

A spacious movable screen, large enough to completely cover the fire, lined throughout with tin, and having shelves for the warming of plates and dishes, should also be an appendage; and there should be an abundance of kitchen utensils of the best kind, kept in their proper places and strictly clean. Cleanliness is, indeed, of the first importance, and no kitchen-maid should ever put away a metal saucepan which has been used for any other purpose than merely boiling pure water, without scalding it thoroughly and then drying it.

Every kitchen should be provided with a clock to keep the cook to her time; also with a large and a small marble mortar for the pounding of meat, with chopper, meat-saw, various-sized scoops for vegetables, when required for haricos &c., paste-cutters, steak-tongs, &c., and those insignificant, though useful little articles, minute-glasses, to regulate the boiling of an egg; nor should a spice-box, containing whole pepper, mace, nutmegs, and cinnamon, be forgotten; together with various dried sweet herbs. Scales, with weights from 1/4 oz. to 2 lbs., should be placed on the dresser, and the weights carefully kept in regular order. A set of tin measures with small spouts or lips, and with the contents distinctly marked upon them, from a gallon down to half a gill, will also be found very convenient. It is likewise well to have a set of wooden measures, from a bushel to a quarter of a peck.

Let it be remembered, that, of liquid measure--

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Two gills are half a pint. Two pints are one quart. Four quarts are one gallon.

Of dry measure-- Half a gallon is a quarter of a peck. One gallon is half a peck. Two gallons are one peck. Four gallons are half a bushel. Eight gallons are one bushel. About twenty-five drops of any thin liquid will fill a common-sized teaspoon. A common tumbler holds half a pint. Four tablespoonfuls, or half a gill, will fill a common wine-glass. Four wine-glasses will fill a half-pint or common tumbler, or a large coffee-cup. A quart black bottle holds in reality about a pint and a half. Of flour, butter, sugar, and most articles used in cakes and pastry, a quart is generally about equal in quantity to a pound avoirdupois (sixteen ounces). Avoirdupois is the weight designated throughout this book. Ten eggs generally weigh one pound before they are broken. A tablespoonful of salt or brown sugar is generally about one ounce.*

Sieves, of various descriptions, are very essential. Every utensil for cookery should be of various sizes, so as to suit the quantity of which the dishes may be composed; and each should be kept in a fixed place, as well as washed and dried immediately after using. The cook should also be charged to take care of jelly-bags, tapes for the collared things, &c., which, if not perfectly scalded and kept dry, give an unpleasant flavor when next used.

*Mrs. Hale gives the following table, by which persons not having scales and weights at hand may readily measure the articles wanted to form any receipt, without the trouble of weighing. Allowance to be made for an extraordinary dryness or moisture of the article weighed or measured.

WEIGHT AND MEASURE. Wheat flour. . . . . . . 1 pound is. . . . . . . . 1 quart. Indian meal. . . . . . . 1 pound, 2 oz., is. . . . 1 quart. Butter, when soft. . . . 1 pound is. . . . . . . . 1 quart. Loaf sugar broken. . . . 1 pound is. . . . . . . . 1 quart. White sugar, powdered. . 1 pound, 1 oz., is. . . . 1 quart. Best brown sugar . . . . 1 pound, 2 oz., is. . . . 1 quart. Eggs . . . . . . . . . . 10 eggs are . . . . . . . 1 pound. Flour. . . . . . . . . . 8 quarts are. . . . . . . 1 peck. Flour. . . . . . . . . . 4 pecks are . . . . . . . 1 bushel.

CHAPTER XXIV.

LIEBIG, in his work on "The Chemistry of Food," says: "Among all the arts known to man, there is none that enjoys a juster appreciation, and the products of which are more universally admired, than that concerned in the preparation of our food. Led by an instinct which has almost reached the dignity of conscious knowledge, and by the sense of taste which protects the health, the experienced cook, with respect to the choice, admixture, and preparation of food, has made acquisitions surpassing all that chemical and physiological science has done in regard to the doctrine or theory of nutrition."

"I do not yet despair," says another writer, "of seeing the day when the culinary science, like others, will have its qualified professors." "The art of cookery," another observes, "is the analeptic part of the art of physic." Dr. Mandeville says, "Physicians should be good cooks, at least in theory."

Dr. Arbuthnot says--"The choice and measure of the materials of which our body is composed--of what we take daily by pounds, is, at least, of as much importance as what we take seldom and only by grains and spoonfuls. Count Rumford remarks: "In what art or science could improvements be made that would more powerfully contribute to increase the comforts and enjoyments of mankind?"

A quaint writer says truly: "The stomach is every man's master;" and Armstrong attributes to the good cook the useful knowledge:

{quote} "How best the fickle fabric to support Of mortal man; in healthful body, how A healthful mind the longest to maintain."

To prevent diseases is surely better than to cure them. The French enjoy a happy equilibrium of spirits more constantly than any other nation; Dr. Kitchiner says, it is because "their elastic stomachs, unimpaired by spirituous liquors, digest vigorously the food they render easily assimilable by cooking it sufficiently; doing half the work of digestion by fire and water, till

{quote} "The tender morsels on the palate melt, And all the force of cookery is felt."

The cardinal virtues of cookery are cleanliness, frugality, nourishment, and palatableness.

The term "gourmand" or "epicure," says a distinguished writer on the subject, is not synonymous with "glutton," who eats as long as he can sit, like the great eater of Kent, whom Fuller places among his worthies; telling us "he ate thirty dozen pigeons at one meal; at another, four score rabbits, and eighteen yards of black pudding, London measure:" nor does the term epicure suit a fastidious appetite only excited by dainties, such as the brains of peacocks or parrots, the tongues of thrushes or nightingales, &c. It means one who has good sense and good taste enough to relish food cooked according to scientific principles; so prepared that the palate be not offended, and that it be rendered easy of digestion. Thus the temperate man is the greatest epicure; for the perfection of enjoyment depends on the perfection of the faculties of mind and body.

The philosopher, Descartes, when a cavilling Marquis said: "What, do you philosophers eat dainties?" replied, "Do you think Providence made good things only for fools!" Boswell says, Dr. Johnson had nice discernment in the science of cookery, and talked of good eating with uncommon satisfaction.

Boileau says, the Norman conqueror William, bestowed portions of land on his favorite chief cook. The Doomsday Book records a grant to Robert Argyllon, for the service of "making in an earthen pot, in the kitchen of our lord the king, a mess called 'De la groute,'"--a kind of plum-porridge--on the day of the coronation. This dish was served to king George IV., at his coronation.

The luxury of different ages has furnished many curiosities in cookery. Among the ancients, a porpus and wild boar were highly esteemed, and the swan was a dish of state; the crane was a dainty in William the Conqueror's time; and seals, curlews, herons, bitterns, and the peacock--this last, "the food of lovers and the meat of lords"--were fashionable at baronial entertainments. The peacock was stuffed with spices and sweet herbs, roasted and served whole; after it was dressed, being covered with the skin and feathers, the tail spread, and the beak and comb gilt. Some were covered with leaf-gold. These birds adorned English tables till the beginning of the seventeenth century.

The pie, full of living birds, was a favorite dish, and a common joke at old English feasts. The dwarf, Jeffrey Hudson, was served up in a cold pie about 1630, before King Charles, at the Duke of Buckingham's table. The baron of beef was a favorite of old English hospitality. Don Anthony, of Guevara, chronicler to Charles V., says, he saw at a feast, "a horse roasted, a cat in jelly, lyzard in hot broth, and frogges fried, &c."

The Roman sauces described by Cœlus Apicius, a celebrated Roman epicure, who wrote a curious cookery book in Latin, and invented a soup made of the livers of a peculiar fish which sometimes sold at the rate of sixty dollars the pound--would be hardly more palatable to us than the black broth of the Spartans which caused the citizens of Sybaris


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to wonder no longer why the Spartans were so fearless of death. Yet one of the receipts of Apicius required the death of three or four dozen animals. The Esquimaux eat raw fish, and melted fat is a delicacy among Arctic natives. Many of the northern Indians eat the intestines and blood. Tartars feed on dogs, and some of the natives of Australia, New Holland, and other countries, were wont to regale themselves upon ants and worms, while mice were an African delicacy. Norwegians mixed the powdered bark of trees with meal to bake in cakes.

La Chapelle's Nouveau Cuisinier, published in 1748, mentions the cooking of a turkey in the shape of a football or a hedgehog; a shoulder of mutton in that of a beehive; an entrée of pigeons in the form of a spider or a frog. Such whimsical harlequinade has now become old-fashioned, though the taste for decoration remains.

By a strange misconception, cookery has in all ages been intrusted to ignorant persons, who practise it without reference to those general principles which connect it with chemistry as much as other arts are allied to that science. Yet in the days of the patriarchs, the province of the cook, it seems, was not a servile one. A princess would not disdain to dress the lamb her lord had killed and brought from the flock. In Homer's time kings and princes killed their own cattle and cooked the flesh.

Perhaps the march of improvement may induce professors of gastronomy to elevate their calling by connecting its practice with the principles of science. The brewers and distillers of the present day are philosophical chemists, understanding the principles on which they act, and their processes are more certain, economical, and manageable than formerly; why may not cooks be philosophers? Why may not equal advantages be derived from the application of science to those arts which relate to the management of solid sustenance?

It has been said that the best books on cookery have been written by medical men.

CHAPTER XXV. A GLOSSARY OF FOREIGN TERMS USED IN COOKERY.

FRENCH cookery is of so diverse a nature that many volumes have already been written upon the subject; and new modes of dressing the same things are so constantly being invented, that we must content ourselves with merely giving a few explanations of the terms adopted by most of our professed cooks.

Atelets. Small silver skewers.

Baba. A French sweet yeast cake.

Bain Marie. A flat vessel containing boiling water, intended to hold also other saucepans for the purpose either of cooking or keeping their contents hot. The Bain Marie is called in the English kitchen Beau Méré Pan. This term is old, having its origin with the alchymists, who, finding that sea-water boiled at a high temperature, and did not evaporate so quickly, used a pan containing sea-water; hence the term: Bain Marie; or, Sea-Water Bath.

Bard.--A slice of thin bacon fat, used for covering the breasts of birds, the back of a hare, or any substance that requires the assistance of fat where larding is not preferred.